Non-state educational institution
higher professional education
"Moscow Institute of Modern Academic Education"
Federal Institute for Advanced Training and Retraining
Faculty of Additional Professional Education
Independent work
by discipline: " Special psychology»
on this topic:
"Peculiarities
mental development of children with mental retardation"
Completed:
Student of the Faculty of Further Education
Andreeva A.Sh.
Moscow, 2016
A list of questions:
What is the rate of mental development?
Expand the concept of mental retardation as an extreme variant of the norm.
What are the main features of mental retardation of constitutional, somatogenic, cerebral-organic origin?
What are the learning conditions necessary for children with mental retardation?
Clearly define what is meant by age norm? How do age and individual characteristics of a child’s development correlate?
In what cases can we talk about abnormal development? Which children are considered abnormal?
What, according to L.S. Vygotsky, determines the process of child formation?
1. RATE OF MENTAL DEVELOPMENT the degree of speed of a person’s personal changes. The psyche is constantly changing and developing. This is a diochronic (dio - through, chronos - time) system. This includes, for example, the natural sequence of development of intelligence described by J. Piaget (1896-1980). According to V.D. Shardakov, the heterochronic system also exists in mastering professional activities. In the process of mental development, stages of increasing functions alternate with stages of stabilization. This is how the transition of quantitative changes into qualitative occurs. The process of development of different aspects of a holistic personality, levels of its individual consciousness also occurs unevenly. Therefore, a personality can combine maturity in some relationships and infantilism in others. An integral characteristic of physical and mental development is the speed of change. According to this criterion, people can be divided into three groups: 1) with accelerated development (approximately 25%), 2) with uniform (50%) and 3) with slow development (25%).
2. The concept of “mental retardation” used in relation to children with minimal organic damage or functional insufficiency of the central nervous system, as well as those who have been in conditions of social deprivation for a long time. They are characterized by immaturity of the emotional-volitional sphere and underdevelopment of cognitive activity, which has its own qualitative characteristics, compensated under the influence of temporary, therapeutic and pedagogical factors.
Mental retardation is an extreme variant of the norm, one of the types of dysontogenesis (disorders of ontogenetic development). Children with this diagnosis develop more slowly than their peers over several age periods.
ZPR is not a persistent and irreversible type of mental underdevelopment: it is a temporary slowdown in the rate of development. The lag is overcome with age, and the more successfully the earlier correctional work with the child begins. Timely diagnosis and the creation of special conditions for education and training are very important. The best results in correctional work can be obtained when the child has not yet reached junior age. school age.
3. Features of diagnostics of children with mental retardation. One of the main psychological and pedagogical problems is the diagnosis of children with learning difficulties.
Children with mental retardation who come to school begin to experience learning difficulties. They lack the development of certain mental functions, abilities, skills, they do not keep up with other students, because they do not have enough knowledge to master the material given in a general education school. Such children will not be able to master general school material without special help.
ZPR of constitutional origin
With this type of mental development delay, the emotional-volitional sphere of the child is at an earlier stage of physical and mental development. There is a predominance of gaming motivation of behavior, superficiality of ideas, and easy suggestibility. Such children, even when studying at a comprehensive school, retain the priority of gaming interests. With this form of mental retardation, harmonious infantilism can be considered the main form of mental infantilism, in which underdevelopment in the emotional-volitional sphere is most pronounced. Scientists note that harmonious infantilism can often be found in twins, this may indicate a connection between this pathology and the development of multiple births. Education of children with this type of mental retardation should take place in a special correctional school.
ZPR of somatogenic origin
The causes of this type of mental development delay are various chronic diseases, infections, childhood neuroses, congenital and acquired malformations of the somatic system. With this form of mental retardation, children may have a persistent asthenic manifestation, which reduces not only the physical status, but also the psychological balance of the child. Children are characterized by fearfulness, shyness, and lack of self-confidence. Children in this category of mental retardation have little contact with their peers due to the guardianship of parents who try to protect their children from what they think is unnecessary communication, so they have a low threshold for interpersonal connections.
With this type of mental retardation, children need treatment in special sanatoriums. The further development and education of these children depends on their health status.
ZPR of cerebral-organic origin.
This type of mental retardation is more common than others. Often has the brightness and persistence of disturbances in the emotional-volitional sphere and cognitive activity of the child. In this category of children, the presence of mild organic insufficiency of the nervous system predominates. This type of mental retardation can be pathologically influenced by pregnancy toxicosis, infectious diseases, trauma, Rh conflict, etc. Children with this type of mental retardation are characterized by emotional-volitional immaturity.
4. Conditions for teaching children with mental retardation
1. Correspondence of the pace, volume and complexity of the curriculum to the child’s real cognitive capabilities, the level of development of his cognitive sphere, level of preparedness, i.e., already acquired knowledge and skills.
2. Purposeful development of general intellectual activity (the ability to understand educational tasks, navigate conditions, comprehend information).
3. Cooperation with adults, the teacher providing the necessary assistance to the child, taking into account his individual problems.
4. Individual dosed assistance to the student, solving diagnostic problems.
5. Development in the child of sensitivity to help, the ability to perceive and accept help.
6.Low class size (10-12 people).
7. Gentle operating mode, compliance with hygienic and valeological requirements.
8. Organization of classes for correctional and developmental education within the walls of a public school.
9. A teacher specially trained in the field of correctional pedagogy (special pedagogy and correctional psychology) is a teacher who is able to create a special friendly, trusting atmosphere in the classroom.
10. Creating a feeling of security and emotional comfort in an underachieving student.
11. Unconditional personal support of the student by school teachers.
12. Interaction and mutual assistance of children in the process educational activities. 13. Confidence in unconditional acceptance of oneself as an individual and positive relationships with peers.
Correction of individual developmental deficiencies is carried out in the following individual and group correctional classes:
General developmental (correction of memory, attention, speech, vocabulary, etc.);
Subject-oriented (preparing for the perception of difficult topics in programs, filling gaps in knowledge);
Classes on the formation of meaningful educational motivation, development of cognitive interests, creative activity of the child, personal qualities.
5. Age norm- indicators of the intellectual and personal development of the schoolchild (psychological new formations), which should be formed by the end of a certain age stage;
When taking into account the age-related characteristics of children's development, the teacher largely relies on generalized data from pedagogy and developmental psychology. As for individual differences and the characteristics of the upbringing of individual children, here he has to rely only on this material, which he receives in the process of personal study of the pupils.
6. Abnormal development- disruption of the general course of human development as a result of any physical or mental defects. The term “anomalous” is based on the Greek word “anomalos”, which translated into Russian means “wrong”. Children who, as a result of a mental or physiological abnormality, have a disturbance in their general development are considered abnormal. The main categories of abnormal children include children: 1) with hearing impairment (deaf, hard of hearing, late deaf);
In addition to the listed groups, there are other groups of children with developmental disabilities: 1) children with psychopathic-like forms of behavior;
7 . 2) children with difficulties in adapting to school, suffering from so-called school neuroses; 3) gifted children who require special attention from teachers and psychologists.
According to L.S. Vygotsky, the process of child formation is determined
“the unity of the material and mental aspects, the unity of social and personal when a child ascends the stages of development.” Each age stage of child development is characterized by its own neoplasms. By age-related neoplasm, the psychologist understood: “that new type of personality structure and its activity, those mental and social changes that first appear at a given age stage and which in the most important and fundamental way determine the child’s consciousness, his attitude to the environment, his internal and external life , the entire course of its development in a given period." In fact, L. S. Vygotsky sought to find a holistic characteristic of development that would make it possible to explain its features at a specific stage. The concept of the pace of mental development. This is a characteristic of a person’s level of development in relation to the level of development of his peers. The norm here is different (broad). But nevertheless, we can talk about a delay in development. It can be: partial (some functions) and total. Developmental delay – infantilism. Retardation and asynchrony of development. All forms of mental disorders are divided into two large classes. Retardation, delay or suspension of mental development of any origin; underdevelopment in various forms of mental retardation. There are two types of retardation: total and partial. In the latter case, we are talking about the immaturity of individual functions, aspects of the psyche in particular, school skills - reading, writing or personality traits. Asynchrony, some functions are ahead of others in development, which leads to disharmony in the structure of the psyche, its distortion and disproportion. For example, the development of speech is ahead of the development of motor skills. Abstract thinking is visual and effective.
- The causes of mental retardation may be similar to mental retardation. Weaker effects, shorter duration.
- If oligophrenia is persistent underdevelopment, then mental retardation is a decrease in the rate of development.
- With oligophrenia, the defect does not go away; with mental retardation, positive dynamics are possible, leveling off is possible, up to reaching the age norm.
- With oligophrenia, signs of the disorder are visible everywhere; with mental retardation, they are detected only upon entering school.
- With oligophrenia, the totality of the defect, with mental retardation, the lag will not necessarily affect all areas.
Causes of developmental delays: organic damage; functional failure of the central nervous system; disorders in intrauterine development; during childbirth; in the first years of life; chronic somatic diseases; long-term deprivation; acquired. One of the characteristic features of children with mental retardation is the uneven development of different aspects of the child’s mental activity. Approaches to identifying types of mental retardation and classification of disorders borderline with oligophrenia, common and different aspects of them. (Sukhareva G. E., Kovalev V. V., Demyanov Yu. G., ICD).
Classification of ZPR according to Kovalev:
- Dysontogenetic forms of borderline intellectual disability (psychophysical infantilism, delayed speech development, school skills; developmental delay in RDA).
- Encephalopathic (cerebrovascular disease, psychoorganic syndrome with insufficiency of cortical functions, cerebral palsy, etc.).
- ZPR in case of defective analyzers.
- Mental retardation in cases of education defects and information deficit in childhood.
Classification of ZPR according to Sukhareva:
- Delay in the rate of development of children due to disturbances in upbringing, learning, and behavior.
- ZPR in asthenic conditions.
- Secondary mental retardation with defects in vision, hearing, musculoskeletal system, and speech.
Classification of ZPR according to Demyanov:
- ZPR with cerebrasthenic syndrome.
- Psychophysical infantilism.
- ZPR with neuropathic syndrome.
- Mental retardation with psychopathic-like symptoms.
- ZPR in cerebral palsy.
- ZPR with general speech underdevelopment.
- ZPR with severe hearing and vision defects.
- ZPR with family and household neglect.
These classifications are united by the fact that ZPR can be primary and secondary. In ICD - 10 (international classification of diseases):
- Organic and symptomatic mental disorders. These include those disorders that are associated with traumatic brain injuries, etc.
- Mental and behavioral disorders caused by the use of mentally active substances (alcohol, cocaine, hallucinogens, poppy preparations, volatile solvents, sleeping pills, tobacco).
- Schizophrenia, schizotic and delusional disorders.
- Affective disorders.
- Neurotic, stress-related and somatomorphic disorders (acute reaction to stress; post-traumatic syndrome).
- Behavioral disorders associated with physiological factors (sleep disturbances, sexual function, food disturbances).
- Personality and behavior disorder in adults (sexual perversions, violation of habits, inclinations).
- Mental retardation in the form of the formation of persistent mental underdevelopment in early childhood.
Variety of clinical manifestations of mental retardation. ZPR of constitutional origin. ZPR of cerebral-organic origin. The main clinical groups of mental retardation are differentiated according to the etiopathogenetic principle (Lebedinsky classification):
- ZPR of constitutional origin;
- ZPR of somatogenic origin;
- mental retardation of psychogenic origin;
- ZPR of cerebral-organic origin.
Each of these types of mental retardation has its own clinical and psychological structure, its own characteristics of emotional immaturity and cognitive impairment, and is often complicated by a number of painful symptoms - somatic, encephalopathic, neurological. In many cases, these painful signs cannot be regarded only as complicating ones, since they play a significant pathogenetic role in the formation of the ZPR itself. The presented clinical types of the most persistent forms of mental retardation mainly differ from each other precisely in the structural features and nature of the relationship between the two main components of this developmental anomaly: the structure of infantilism and the nature of neurodynamic disorders. In the slow pace of formation of cognitive activity, insufficiency of intellectual motivation and volition is associated with infantilism, and the tone and mobility of mental processes are associated with neurodynamic disorders.
I. ZPR of constitutional origin. 3 subspecies:
1). Harmonic psychophysical infantilism. The basis is hereditary factors or a disease in early childhood. In terms of their physical development, they are 2–3 years behind. Characterized by good speech development; bright expressive emotions; friendliness; friendliness; attraction to older people. There are no gross cognitive impairments noted. When they come to school they become underachievers. There is no personal readiness for school. Gaming interests prevail. Transforms a learning situation into a game one. In conversations he openly talks about his reluctance to learn. It is advisable to return them to kindergarten until they mature. Favorable dynamics. Features of hysterical accentuation may increase (the need to be in the center of attention, etc.).
2). Disharmonic psychophysical infantilism. Non-severe brain damage at an early stage of development. Retarded physical development. There is a violation of cognitive activity (immaturity of mental operations, narrowed memory capacity, difficulties in analyzing spatial relationships). High fatigue, reduced mental performance. Attention is unstable, or its pathological inertia, stuckness. Disharmony in the emotional-volitional sphere, in communication. Hot temper, affective instability, pugnaciousness, etc. Indifference to comments. The dynamics are less favorable for leveling.
3). Psychophysical infantilism in endocrine insufficiency. Violation of metabolic processes. Retarded physical development. Body dysplasticity and impaired coordination of movements. Creates difficulties for communication. Complexes, anxiety, etc. They have a slowness in all mental processes. No brightness of imagination, no initiative (low academic performance). Mood fluctuations with a predominance of the depressive component. The appearance of neurotic symptoms (fertile soil). These features can be smoothed out. Positive dynamics.
II. ZPR of somatogenic origin. It is based on the presence of chronic diseases of internal organs. He is weakened by all sorts of diseases. This is due to overprotection; excessive desire of adults to protect the child from some other harm. The child is raised in greenhouse conditions. A large number of prohibitions. In cognitive development, he may even be ahead of his peers. Personal immaturity (uncertainty; lack of initiative; timidity; inability to make decisions; timidity). Lagging behind in physical development and active forms of behavior. Diseases intensify and become aggravated under conditions of overprotection.
III. ZPR of psychogenic origin. Deprivation situation (see above). Separation is the painful separation of a child from his mother. This can lead to negative social attitudes. Increased feelings of anxiety and higher aggressiveness. Extreme exposures do not so much affect development as a whole, but being exposed to them for a long time affects development more significantly (under 3 years of age, children experience underdevelopment; older children experience retardation). Afterwards, aggression towards peers was noted. Infantilism. Upbringing in conditions of neglect (in terms of cognitive development; lack of formation of moral and ethical standards and arbitrary regulation of behavior; unstable type of character, etc.). Overprotection. Personal development is inhibited; no responsibility, sense of duty; hysterical character; egocentrism, etc. Lack of initiative, independence, tendency to lie, uncertainty, fears (the “hedgehog” type of education).
IV. Lesions of the cerebral-organic origin. There is a need for medical and pedagogical correction here. Damages during childbirth, infections, intoxications. Damage to the central nervous system in the early stages. The scale of the damage matters. It has similarities for reasons with mental retardation. Detected much earlier.
Unlike other types of ZPR, this type shows signs of lag in almost all areas. Retarded physical development – more than 30%; motor functions – about 70%; in speech development – more than 60%; in the formation of neatness skills - about 40%. The lag in the emotional-volitional sphere is striking. Organic infantilism. Primitiveness, scarcity of emotions; gross suggestibility; reduced criticality; poor differentiation of emotions; lack of liveliness, brightness, expressiveness. Memory, attention, spatial analysis lag behind in development. No educational interests. Lack of creativity, initiative in play activity. Low level of activity and independence. Either the euphoric background of the mood predominates, or the dysphoric (lowered) background of the mood.
Differential diagnosis of congenital mental retardation and clinical manifestations bordering on it
The problem of differential diagnosis in connection with the staffing of institutions for mentally retarded children was the subject of discussion at the International Conference held in 1964 in Copenhagen. Even then, it was pointed out that only psychometric assessments were insufficient in diagnosing mental retardation, and tasks were set to develop research methods and criteria for distinguishing mental retardation from borderline conditions similar to it. As a rule, the reason for questioning the usefulness of the intellect of a school-age child is his underachievement, which is revealed in the learning process. Equating academic failure with mental retardation is a gross and dangerous theoretical and practical mistake. In the works of teachers and psychologists Z. I. Kalmykova, N. A. Menchinskaya, A. M. Gelmont, L. S. Slavina and others, devoted to the study of the causes of academic failure, it is indicated that in most cases, academic failure is not caused by impairments in cognitive activity, but is caused by other reasons. It is necessary to establish the causes of academic failure (inability to learn, gaps in knowledge, negative attitude towards learning, conflict situations at school, in the family, etc.) and eliminate them, developing the child’s potential capabilities. The most difficult in diagnostic terms are children with mental retardation (MDD), who also turn out to be unsuccessful already in the first years of education.
Currently, this category of children has been deeply and comprehensively studied both from the clinical and psychological-pedagogical sides. Here we do not dwell in detail on the etiology and main signs, but indicate only the most significant features of the mental activity of children with developmental delays for differential diagnosis. Depending on the origin (cerebral, constitutional, somatogenic, psychogenic), and the time of exposure of the child’s body to harmful factors, mental retardation gives rise to different types of deviations in the emotional-volitional sphere and in cognitive activity. Mental retardation of cerebral origin due to chromosomal abnormalities, intrauterine lesions, and birth injuries are more common than others and pose the greatest difficulty in distinguishing them from mental retardation.
Studies by defectologists (V.I. Lubovsky, K.S. Lebedinskaya, M.S. Pevzner, N.A. Tsypina, etc.) indicate that when mental development is delayed, there is uneven formation of mental functions, and both damage and and underdevelopment of individual mental processes. In oligophrenia, the totality and hierarchy of the lesion are characteristic. Scientists who studied mental processes and learning opportunities for children with mental retardation (T. V. Egorova, G. I. Zharenkova, V. I. Lubovsky, N. A. Nikashina, R. D. Triger, N. A. Tsypina, S. G. Shevchenko, U. V. Ulienkova, etc.), identified a number of specific features in their cognitive, personal, emotional-volitional sphere and behavior. The following main features of children with mental retardation are noted: increased exhaustion and, as a result, low performance, immaturity of emotions, weakness of will, psychopathic behavior, a limited supply of general information and ideas, poor vocabulary, difficulties in sound analysis, immaturity of intellectual activity skills.
Game activity is also not fully formed. Perception is characterized by slowness. In thinking, a lack of verbal and logical operations is revealed. When a task is presented in a visually effective way, the quality of its implementation improves significantly. To assess the level of development of thinking during a psychological and pedagogical examination, it is necessary to compare the results of the child’s work with verbal, logical and visually effective material. These children suffer from all types of memory and lack the ability to use aids for memorization.
A longer period is required to receive and process sensory information. Attention is unstable. In addition, there is a low skill of self-control, which is especially evident in the process of activity. By the beginning of school, these children, as a rule, have not formed the basic mental operations - analysis, synthesis, comparison, generalization; they do not know how to navigate the task, do not plan their activities, and do not retain the terms of the task. But, unlike the mentally retarded, they have higher learning ability, they use help better and are able to apply the shown method of action when performing similar tasks.
When examining reading, writing, and counting, they often reveal errors of the same type as the mentally retarded, but nevertheless they have qualitative differences. Thus, with poor reading technique, children with mental retardation always try to understand what they read, resorting, if necessary, to repeated reading. People with mental retardation have no desire to understand, so their retelling may be inconsistent and illogical. The letter notes unsatisfactory calligraphy skills, negligence, etc., which, according to experts, may be due to underdevelopment of motor skills and spatial perception. Sound analysis is difficult for children with mental retardation.
In the mentally retarded, all these shortcomings are more severely expressed. In mathematics, there are difficulties in mastering the composition of numbers, counting by passing through ten, in solving problems with indirect questions, etc., but the help here is more effective than for the mentally retarded. Taking this into account, when making differentiated diagnostics, it is necessary to conduct an examination of children in the form of a teaching experiment. These are some of the characteristics of children with mental retardation, who are often referred to medical and pedagogical commissions. An apparent similarity with mental retardation may also occur when the activity of the analyzers is disrupted.
These disorders create certain difficulties in the cognitive activity of children, and in a school environment they give rise to poor performance. Therefore, distinguishing these disorders from mental retardation is an urgent task. Even minor dysfunctions of the analyzers can lead to an incomplete and sometimes distorted reflection of the outside world, to an impoverished range of ideas, and inappropriate behavior if the compensatory capabilities of the central nervous system and special technical means (hearing aids, glasses, etc.) are not used. Thus, hearing loss can cause certain difficulties when a child is studying at school, especially when mastering literacy. Children with reduced vision do not see lines, confuse images that are similar in outline, etc. Inappropriate requirements quickly tire the child, make learning unsuccessful in normal school conditions, worsening his general condition. Children with visual and hearing defects find themselves helpless in simple situations and give the impression of being mentally retarded. But if you offer a hearing-impaired person a task of a logical nature that does not require perfect hearing from him (classification, arranging pictures taking into account cause-and-effect relationships, etc.), and the visually impaired person is offered corresponding oral tasks, then they complete them.
When distinguishing conditions caused by disturbances of analyzers from mental retardation, it is necessary to find out what primarily dominates the lag: mental retardation is the leading and primary defect, and decreased hearing and vision only accompany it, or the lag occurred as a result of dysfunction of the analyzers. It is important to consider the time of damage to the analyzer. The earlier the disease process occurs, the more severe the consequences. Depending on the diagnosis, the question will be decided in what special school child needs. In addition, it is very important to separate normal children with speech disorders from mentally retarded children, for whom speech disorders are one of the characteristic features. There are different types of speech disorders that have varying degrees of severity depending on the strength and time of the lesion.
These are children with normal intelligence, but who have difficulty mastering reading and writing, and some of them have general underdevelopment of speech. While the auditory analyzer is intact, these children suffer from phonemic hearing, which leads to learning difficulties (they do not clearly perceive spoken speech, do not differentiate similar sounds, so sound-letter analysis is difficult, etc.).
In case of severe impairment of phonemic hearing, underdevelopment of the entire speech function occurs. Pronunciation problems also affect literacy acquisition. All this should be taken into account when conducting a speech therapy examination. The preservation of the intelligence of children with speech impairments is clearly visible when performing tasks that do not require the participation of speech (visual techniques with “non-speech” instructions). These children have a lively reaction and adequate behavior. This is what primarily distinguishes them from the mentally retarded. All of the listed temporary difficulties in cognitive activity and disorders of the central nervous system, if the attention of the school and family is not promptly drawn to them, can lead to the so-called pedagogical neglect, which is most often identified with mental retardation.
The difficulty in determining mental retardation lies in the fact that, unlike other anomalies (deafness, blindness), for mental retardation there is no absolutely objective criterion, no scale by which it could be measured.
Specifics of development in the preschool period and typical difficulties in the initial period of schooling. In children of primary school age with mental retardation, playing according to the rules consisted of separate, poorly connected fragments. The complication of the rules of the game and their intellectualization often led to its collapse. When completing the task, the children paid attention not to the content of the task, but to the facial expressions and gestures of the teacher. The process was interrupted by questions about the proposed mark. The most attractive tasks for them were those in a playful form. During lessons, these children are restless, do not obey the requirements of discipline, in response to comments they promise to improve, but immediately forget. In conversation they easily and openly express a negative attitude towards school.
Further dynamics of development and learning at school; prognostically favorable factors. The situation of systematic failure, which children with mental retardation find themselves in when entering a public school, aggravates the mental retardation, negatively affects their further intellectual development, and contributes to their abnormal personality formation.
when using materials from www.psi.webzone.ru
This dictionary was created specifically for site users so that they can find any psychological term in one place. If you haven’t found some definition or, on the contrary, you know it, but we don’t have it, be sure to write to us and we will add it to the dictionary of the psychological portal “Psychotest”.
Rate of mental development
RATE OF MENTAL DEVELOPMENT - the degree of speed of a person’s personal changes. constantly changing and developing. This is a diochronic (dio - through, chronos - time) system. This includes, for example, the natural sequence of development of intelligence described by the Swiss psychologist J. Piaget (1896-1980). In the process of mental development, stages of increasing functions alternate with stages of stabilization. This is how the transition of quantitative changes into qualitative occurs. The process of development of different aspects of a holistic personality, levels of its individual consciousness also occurs unevenly. Therefore, a personality can combine maturity in some respects and infantilism in others. An integral characteristic of physical and mental development is the speed of change. According to this criterion, people can be divided into three groups: 1) with accelerated development (approximately 25%), 2) uniform (50%) and 3) slow development (25%).
List of random tags:
,
Aspiration - Aspiration is a motive that is not presented to the subject in its objective content, due to which the dynamic side of activity comes to the fore.
,
Practice and internship of students - PRACTICE AND INTERNSHIP OF STUDENTS - types of their professional training. During the period of practice and internship, educational, social and scientific activity students find their continuation directly in the conditions of their future professional work. During practice, students solve real professional problems, replenish their knowledge, skills, abilities, professionally improve important qualities, and gain leadership experience. At the same time, the practice and internship of students makes it possible to identify the positive aspects and disadvantages of professional training, to better understand the complexity and responsibility of duties in the specialty, the importance of independence, mental, communicative, organizational, pedagogical qualities and abilities. The influence of practice and internship on professional and general development The more thoroughly the business and psychological preparation for them is carried out, the stronger the trainees.
,
Preventive psychology - PREVENTIVE PSYCHOLOGY is a branch of applied psychology. Its main task is to equip a wide range of practitioners (teachers, educators, employees of inspections and commissions on juvenile affairs, social workers, practical psychologists) with psychological knowledge to prevent, diagnose and correct deviant behavior of minors, as well as improve the conditions of their family and public education. For preventive psychology, it is important to determine the scope and psychological tools that allow you to solve your own specific problems in preventing and correcting deviant behavior of children and adolescents. Among the various, interrelated factors that determine the genesis of antisocial behavior, we can distinguish: individual factor, psychological and pedagogical factor, socio-psychological factor, personal factor and social factor.
Natalia Koporushkina
Independent work in the discipline “Developmental Psychology”
AGE PSYCHOLOGY…. 2
TOPIC 2. PROBLEMS AGE PERIODIZATION….7
TOPIC 3. PSYCHOLOGY OF PRESCHOOL CHILDREN…. ….…11
TOPIC 4. JUNIOR SCHOOL AGE….….24
Section 2. « AGE-RELATED PSYCHOLOGY»
Topic 1. SUBJECT, OBJECTIVES, METHODS AGE PSYCHOLOGY
1. Developmental psychology is a branch of psychological science, studying the facts and patterns of human development, age dynamics of his psyche.
Item developmental psychology - age periods of development, causes and mechanisms of transition from one age period to another, general patterns and trends, pace and direction mental development in ontogenesis.
2. Objectives developmental psychology
Age-related psychology aims to study a holistic mental development throughout the entire space human life from birth to death, the ultimate task is the study of a changing, developing individual in a changing world.
3. Communication developmental psychology with other sciences.
Age-related psychology closely related to other areas psychology: general psychology, human psychology, social, pedagogical and differential psychology. As is known, in general psychology studies mental functions – perception, thinking, speech, memory, attention, imagination. IN developmental psychology traces the development process of each mental function at different age stages. IN psychology of a person, such personal formations as motivation, self-esteem and level of aspirations, value orientations, worldview, etc., and developmental psychology answers questions when these formations appear in a child, what are their characteristics in a certain age. Connection developmental psychology socially shows the dependence of the child’s development and behavior on the characteristics of those groups in which he included: from family, kindergarten group, school class, teenage companies. Developmental and educational psychology as if they are looking at the process of interaction between a child and an adult from different parties: age-related psychology from the point of view of the child, pedagogical - from the point of view of the educator, teacher. Besides age patterns of development, there are also individual differences, which are dealt with by differential psychology: children of one age may have different levels intelligence and various personality traits. IN developmental psychology studies age patterns, common to all children. But at the same time, possible deviations in one direction or another from the general lines of development are also noted.
Besides sciences psychological cycle developmental psychology associated with philosophy, anatomy, physiology, pedagogy.
4. Methods developmental psychology: a) longitudinal and transverse forms of research; b) basic research methods.
Features of observation and experiment methods in developmental psychology. Features of the application of experimental methods in developmental psychology. Natural and laboratory experiment in nursery psychology. Ascertaining and formative research strategy. Main types of statement experiment: "longitudinal" And "transverse" slices. Formative experiment method as an alternative to the method "slices".
Method of analyzing activity products. "Twin" method, its meaning. The importance of cross-cultural research for problem solving developmental psychology.
a) Sections - a research method in developmental psychology. They are divided into transverse and longitudinal (longitudinal).
The essence of the cross-sectional method is that a certain parameter is studied in a group of children using certain techniques. The advantage of this method is that in a short time it is possible to obtain statistical data on age-related differences in mental processes, establish how it affects age, gender or other factor on underlying trends mental development. The disadvantage of this method is that when studying children of different age it is impossible to obtain information about the very process of development, its nature and driving forces.
When using the longitudinal method (longitudinal) cross-sections trace the development of a group of the same children over a long period of time. This method allows us to establish qualitative changes in development mental processes and personality of the child and identify the causes of these changes, as well as study developmental trends, minor changes that cannot be covered by cross-sections. The disadvantage of the method is that the results obtained are based on studying the behavior of a small group of children, so extending such data to a large number of children seems incorrect.
b) Basic research methods.
Testing allows us to identify the level of intellectual abilities and personal qualities of a child. When testing children, the same tests are used as for adults, but adapted for each age.
A conversation is obtaining information about a child through direct communication with him: The child is asked targeted questions and expected to answer them. This method is empirical. An important condition for the effectiveness of a conversation is a favorable atmosphere, goodwill, and tact. Questions must be prepared in advance and the answers recorded, if possible without attracting the attention of the subject.
Questioning is a method of obtaining information about a person based on his answers to pre-prepared questions. Questionnaires can be oral, written, individual or group.
Analysis of the products of activity is a method of studying a person by analyzing the products of his activities: drawings, drawings, musical works, essays, study books, personal diaries, etc. Thanks to this method, you can obtain information about inner world the child, his attitude to the surrounding reality and people, about the peculiarities of his perception and other aspects psyche. Based on the drawings, you can study cognitive processes, Creative skills, personal manifestations, children’s attitude towards people around them.
Research methods in developmental psychology
IN psychology There are four groups of methods.
The first group of methods, which can be called organizational, relate: comparative, longitudinal and comprehensive. In the nursery psychology and psychology adults, the comparative method acts as a method age, or "transverse", slices. Comparatively – age The method is a comparison of individual features according to ages in order to identify the dynamics of the studied mental process. In parallel with the comparative method in developmental psychology A longitudinal method was developed. He assumes: multiple examinations of the same individuals over a fairly long period of time, sometimes measured in tens of years.
The second, most extensive group of methods consists of empirical methods for obtaining scientific data. To this group of methods relate: observation and introspection; experimental methods; psychodiagnostic methods(tests, questionnaires, questionnaires, interviews and conversation); analysis of processes and products of activity (student works of various kinds) ; biographical methods (event analysis life path person, documentation, certificates, etc.).
The third group consists of methods data processing. These methods include quantitative (statistical) and qualitative (differentiation of material into groups, variants, description of cases that most fully express types and variants, and those that are exceptions) analyses.
The fourth group is interpretive methods. These include genetic and structural methods. The genetic method makes it possible to interpret the entire processed research material in the characteristics of development, highlighting phases, stages, critical moments of formation mental neoplasms.
Childhood is the period of human life from birth to adolescence age. This period includes: infancy (from birth to 1 year) early childhood (1-3 years, preschool age(3 years - 6-7 years) and junior school age(6-11 years old).
Childhood is a period of intense biological, social and psychological development.
Age - category, which serves to indicate the temporary characteristics of individual development. Unlike chronological age, expressing the duration of existence of an individual from the moment of his birth, the concept psychological age denotes a certain, qualitatively unique stage of ontogenetic development, determined by the laws of organism formation, living conditions, training and upbringing, and having a specific historical origin.
Gerontology is a branch of biology and medicine that studies the patterns of aging of living organisms, including humans. Includes geriatrics, gerohygiene and gerontopsychology. There are also social gerontology, comparative and evolutionary.
Children's psychology - branch of psychological science, studying the conditions and driving forces of development psyche at the stage of childhood, patterns of functioning and changes in cognitive, volitional and emotional processes, features of the formation of a child as a person. Children's psychology develops standardized methods psychological diagnostics, allowing you to set the level of development mental processes and properties, characteristic for everyone age stage
Cognitive development is the development of all types of mental processes such as perception, memory, concept formation, problem solving, imagination and logic.
Ontogenesis - formation of basic structures psyche the individual during his childhood; the study of ontogenesis is the main task of children's psychology.
Teenage age- a period in human development, a transitional stage between childhood and adulthood.
Mental development - development mental processes and mental personality traits under the influence of training and education; Mental development proceeds through certain stages corresponding to a certain age period.
Psychology adult - the onset of a new phase in human development is determined by a complex of social and biological reasons and depends on the specific socio-economic conditions of his individual development. The highest degree of receptivity to social and professional experience is observed between the ages of 18 and 25. During these years, the greatest changes in intellectual functions occur. This indicates the mobility and flexibility of the relationship between memory and attention. At 26-29 years of age, attention in its development is ahead of memory and thinking. This is due to the drastic restructuring personalities: life positions are determined, a person’s position in the family and in the work team changes. At 30-33 years old it begins again high development all intellectual functions - memory, thinking and attention, which decreases by 45 years. Then the speed of receiving information, its processing and reactions to it, intensity of attention, as well as emotional balance and others psychological indicators are going down.
The social situation of development is an essential characteristic age period of development, introduced by L. S. Vygotsky. The social situation of development as the one and only, specific to a given age relationship between the child and the environment.
TOPIC 2. PROBLEMS AGE PERIODIZATION
1. Concept: age, its types, age periodization.
Age– the duration of the period from the moment of birth of a living organism to the present or any other specific point in time.
Psychological age(L. S. Vygotsky)– a qualitatively unique period mental development, is characterized primarily by the appearance of a new formation, which is prepared by the entire course of previous development.
Kinds ages:
1) Chronological age determined by human life expectancy (according to passport);
2) Biological age– a set of biological indicators, the functioning of the body as a whole (circulatory, respiratory, digestive systems, etc.);
3) Psychological age– a certain level of development psyche, which includes following:
a) Mental age.
To determine mental age children from 4 to 16 years old use the Wechsler test, which includes verbal and visual data (figurative) task form. When it is applied, a total “general intellectual index” is obtained.
b) Social maturity – SQ – social intelligence (a person must be adapted to the environment that surrounds him).
c) Emotional maturity: arbitrariness of emotions, balance, personal maturity.
In real life, individual components ages don't always match.
Age periodization - periodization of human development from birth to death, definition age boundaries of stages in a person’s life, the system accepted in society age stratification.
2. Principles age periodization in domestic concepts psychologists.
Vygotsky distinguished three groups periodizations: according to external criteria, according to one or several signs of child development.
The first group of periodizations is based on external criteria, without connection with the physical and mental development of a person.
The second group of periodizations is based on one internal criterion. The choice of criterion that forms the basis of classification is subjective and occurs for a variety of reasons.
The third group of periodizations is based on several significant features of development and can take into account changes in the importance of criteria over time. An example of such periodizations are systems developed Vygotsky and Elkonin.
There are many periodizations age development. Detail elaboration periodizations are not the same for different ages; periodizations of childhood and adolescence have tended to attract more attention psychologists than the periodization of maturity, since development in maturity does not bring qualitative changes and meaningful periodization of maturity is difficult.
Vygotsky's periodization
L. S. Vygotsky represented the process of child development as a transition between by age levels, in which smooth development occurs through periods of crisis. Periods of stable and crisis development according to Vygotsky.
Newborn crisis (up to 2 months)
Infant age(up to 1 year)
Year 1 crisis
Early childhood (1-3 years)
Crisis 3 years
Preschool age(3-7 years)
Crisis 7 years
School age(7-13 years old)
Crisis 13 years
Puberty age(13-17 years old)
Crisis 17 years
Pavel Petrovich Blonsky chose an objective, easily observable sign associated with the essential features of the constitution of a growing organism - the appearance and change of teeth.
0-8 months – 2.5 years – toothless childhood
2.5 – 6.5. years – childhood of baby teeth
6.5 and older – childhood of permanent teeth (before the wisdom tooth appears)
Periodization of Elkonin
Periodization of D. B. Elkonin, which is an integration of the concepts of L. S. Vygotsky and A. N. Leontiev, identifies the following periods:
Early childhood
Infancy (0-1 year)
Early age(1-3 years)
Childhood
Preschool age(3-7 years)
Junior school age(7-11/12 years old)
Boyhood
Teenage age(11/12-15 years)
Early youth (from 15 years old)
Elkonin periodization is the most generally accepted in Russian developmental psychology.
Slobodchikov Viktor Ivanovich
Stage 1 – revival (0-12months)
Stage 2 – animation (11-12 months – 5-6 years)
Stage 3 – personalization (5.5 – 18 years)
Stage 4 – individualization (17-42 years old)
Classification of the APN of the USSR (1965)
In 1965, at a symposium of the USSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences, the following was adopted: age periodization:
Newborns - from 1 to 10 days
Infant - from 10 days to 1 year
Early childhood - from 1 to 2 years
The first period of childhood - from 3 to 7 years
Second period of childhood - from 8 to 12 years (husband.); from 8 to 11 years (female)
Teenage age - from 13 to 16 years(husband.); from 12 to 15 years (female)
Youthful age - from 17 to 21 years(husband.); from 16 to 20 years (female)
Average age
First period - from 22 to 35 years (husband.); from 21 to 35 years old (female)
Second period - from 36 to 60 years (husband.); from 36 to 55 years old (female)
Elderly people - from 61 to 75 years old (husband.); from 56 to 75 years (female)
Senile age - from 76 to 90 years
Centenarians - over 90 years old
A crisis period of development is certain temporary periods in human development during which sharp mental changes. They do not last long, from several months to a year, and are a normal phenomenon in a person’s personal development.
The principle of leading activity is activity, the implementation of which determines the formation of the main psychological neoplasms of a person at a given stage of development of his personality. Within the V.D. preparation, emergence, and differentiation of other types of activities take place (A. N. Leontyev, D. B.
The principle of historicism
Psyche at all its levels, including its natural prerequisites, is a product of history, since the carrier itself mental- an integral human individual - realizes himself as an active subject only in his own multidimensional relationship to the historically developing social being.
The researcher's task is to genetically study the structural components mental process, unfolding over time. The study must cover the entire development process of a particular mental phenomenon, who explained all the phases of change - from the moment of origin to death - and explained its nature, cognized its essence.
A crisis three years - age crisis, arising during the transition from early age to preschool, characterized by a sharp and radical restructuring of existing personal mechanisms and the formation of new features of the child’s consciousness and personality, as well as a transition to a new type of relationship with others.
Negativism is a negative reaction associated with one person's attitude towards another person. A child does not do something just because a certain adult suggested it to him. Negativism selective: the child ignores the demands of one family member or one teacher, but is quite obedient with others. The main motive for action is to do the opposite, that is, the exact opposite of what he was told.
Depreciation - in the eyes of a child, everything that was familiar, interesting, and dear to him before is devalued. A symptom of devaluation can manifest itself in the fact that the child begins to swear, tease and call parents names, and break his favorite toys.
Tool-object activity. Within this activity develop mental processes - perception, memory, thinking, speech. In this activity, a new type of activity is emerging, which will become leading in the next psychological age.
The trend towards independent actions is associated with the emergence of personal action. A personal action is an action that the child treats as if he himself carried it out. Performing such an action is accompanied by the appearance of the pronoun “I” in speech.
Protest-rebellion - manifests itself in frequent conflicts with parents. It is important for a child that people around him take him seriously. independence. If a child does not feel that he is taken into account, that his opinion and desires are respected, he begins to protest. He rebels against the old framework, against the old relationships.
Self-awareness- human awareness and assessment himself oneself as a subject of practical and cognitive activity, as a person (that is, one’s moral character and interests, values, ideals and motives of behavior).
Self-esteem is how high or low a person evaluates his personal qualities and capabilities.
Stubbornness is the reaction of a child who insists on something not because he really wants it, but because he demanded it from an adult, and the child cannot refuse his own decision even under changed circumstances.
Self-will is the child’s desire to do everything himself, manifestation of initiative of one’s own action, which is inadequate to the child’s capabilities and causes additional conflicts with adults.
Borisova Lyudmila Alexandrovna
Job title: additional education teacher
Educational institution: MAU DO TsDT "Yunost"
Locality: Perm city
Name of material: article
Subject:"Pace of mental development"
Publication date: 11.10.2017
Chapter: secondary vocational
Performed by Lyudmila Aleksandrovna Borisova
Rate of mental development.
The pace of mental development is an indicator of intensity
quantitative and qualitative progressive changes in the psyche. IN
mental development of children there are significant individual
differences. These differences relate primarily to the pace of mental development.
Although children raised in the same culture have
there are known average periods for the occurrence of age-related crises
development, transition from one stage of development to another, what exactly are average
deadlines. In some children they can occur much earlier and
much later. Even greater differences are observed in the rates
mastery of certain types of activities, development of mental
processes and qualities.
Impaired mental function
- an extreme variant of the norm, one of
types of dysontogenesis. Children with this diagnosis develop more slowly than
their peers. Mental retardation (MDD) manifests itself early.
Its initial cause may be alcoholism of the parents, illness of the mother during
pregnancy, birth injuries, infections during the first
months of life, and some other harmful effects that express
mild organic failure of the central nervous
systems. In the specialized literature, mental retardation is otherwise
called minimal brain dysfunction.
Features of the ZPR
S. Lebedinskaya proposed a classification of ZPR in 1980. The basis
This classification is based on etiopathogenetic systematics. Select 4
main types of ZPR:
♦ constitutional nature;
♦ somatogenic nature;
♦ psychogenic in nature;
♦ cerebral-organic nature.
All 4 types have their own characteristics. A distinctive feature of these types
consists in their emotional immaturity and cognitive impairment
activities. In addition, complications in the body can often occur.
tic and neurological spheres, but the main difference is especially and
the nature of the relationships between two important components of this developmental anomaly:
structures of infantilism and developmental features of all mental
ZPR of constitutional origin
With this type of mental retardation, the emotional-volitional sphere
the child is at an earlier stage of physical and mental
formation. There is a predominance of gaming motivation of behavior,
superficiality of ideas, easy suggestibility. Even such children
When studying in a comprehensive school, the priority of gaming is maintained
interests. With this form of mental retardation, harmonic infantilism can be considered
the main form of mental infantilism, in which the most pronounced
underdevelopment in the emotional-volitional sphere is expressed. Scientists note
that harmonious infantilism can often be found in twins, this
may indicate a connection between this pathology and the development of multiple births.
Education of children with this type of mental retardation should take place in a special
correctional school.
ZPR of somatogenic origin
The causes of this type of mental retardation are
various chronic diseases, infections, childhood neuroses,
congenital and acquired malformations of the somatic system. At
In this form of mental retardation, children may have persistent asthenic
a manifestation that reduces not only physical status, but also
psychological balance of the child. Children are inherently fearful
shyness, lack of self-confidence. Children in this category have few developmental disabilities
communicate with peers due to the care of parents who try
protect their children from what they think is unnecessary communication, so they have
the threshold for interpersonal connections is low.
With this type of mental retardation, children need treatment in special sanatoriums.
The further development and education of these children depends on their condition
health.
Psychogenic mental retardation
The central core of this form of mental retardation
is family dysfunction (prosperous or single-parent family,
various types of mental trauma). If from an early age on the psyche
the child was exposed to the traumatic influence of unfavorable social
conditions, this can lead to serious disturbances in the neuro-
mental activity of the child and, as a consequence, to shifts in vegetative
functions, and then mental ones. In this case we can talk about
anomalies in personality development. This ZPR form must be completed correctly
differentiate from pedagogical neglect, which is pathological
the condition is not characterized, but arises against the background of a lack of knowledge,
skills and intellectual underdevelopment.
ZPR of cerebral-organic origin.
This type of mental retardation is more common than others. Often
has the brightness and persistence of disturbances in the emotional-volitional sphere and
cognitive activity of the child. This category of children predominates
the presence of mild organic failure of the nervous system. On that
type of ZPR can have a pathological effect on toxicosis of pregnant women,
infectious diseases, injuries, Rhesus conflict, etc. Children with this
type of mental retardation is characterized by emotional-volitional immaturity.
Educational conditions necessary for children with mental retardation
1. Correspondence of the pace, volume and complexity of the curriculum to reality
cognitive abilities of the child, the level of development of his cognitive
sphere, level of preparedness, i.e. already acquired knowledge and skills.
2. Purposeful development of general intellectual activity (ability
realize educational tasks, navigate the conditions, comprehend
information).
3. Cooperation with adults, provision of necessary assistance by the teacher
child, taking into account his individual problems.
4. Individual dosed assistance to the student, solution
diagnostic tasks.
5. Development of the child’s sensitivity to help, ability
perceive and accept help.
6.Low class size (10-12 people).
7. Gentle operating mode, compliance with hygienic and valeological rules
requirements.
8. Organization of classes for correctional and developmental education within the walls
mass school.
9. Specially trained in the field of correctional pedagogy
(special pedagogy and correctional psychology) teacher - teacher,
capable of creating a special friendly, trusting atmosphere in the class
atmosphere.
10. Creating a feeling of security and safety in an underperforming student
emotional comfort.
11. Unconditional personal support of the student by school teachers.
12. Interaction and mutual assistance of children in the learning process
activities.
13. Confidence in unconditional acceptance of oneself as an individual and positive
relationships with peers.
Age norm
Individual stages of development are characterized as features
morphofunctional maturity of individual organs and systems, and
the difference in mechanisms that determine the specifics of the interaction of the organism
and the external environment.
The need for specific characteristics of individual stages of development,
taking both these factors into account raises the question of what to consider in
as the age norm for each stage.
For a long time, the age norm was considered as
a set of average statistical parameters characterizing
morphofunctional characteristics of the organism. This idea of the norm
has its roots in a time when practical needs
determined the need to highlight some average standards,
allowing to identify developmental deviations. There is no doubt that on
At a certain stage in the development of biology and medicine, a similar approach played
progressive role, allowing us to determine the average statistical parameters
morphofunctional characteristics of the developing organism; yes and in
Currently, it allows solving a number of practical problems (for example, when
calculating standards of physical development, rationing the impact
environmental factors, etc.). However, this idea of age
norm, absolutizing the quantitative assessment of morphofunctional
maturity of the organism at different stages of ontogenesis, does not reflect the essence
age-related transformations that determine adaptive orientation
development of the organism and its relationship with the external environment. Absolutely
It is obvious that if the qualitative specificity of the functioning
physiological systems at certain stages of development remains unaccounted for,
then the concept of age norm loses its content, it ceases
reflect the real functional capabilities of the body at certain
age periods.
The idea of the adaptive nature of individual development led
to the need to revise the concept of age norm as a set
average morphological and physiological parameters.
A position was put forward according to which the age norm should be
considered as a biological optimum for the functioning of living things
systems that provide an adaptive response to external factors
Wednesday (Kozlov, Farber).
Abnormal development
The concept of "anomaly" translated from Greek means deviation from the norm,
from a general pattern, an irregularity in development. In this sense it is
the concept exists in pedagogical and psychological sciences.
Question about anomalies in the development of mental processes and behavior
person can only be considered in the context of knowledge about normal
parameters of these processes and behavior. The problem of the norm and its variants -
one of the most complex in modern psychological science. It includes
includes such questions as the norm of reaction (motor, sensory), norm
cognitive functions (perception, memory, thinking, etc.), normal
regulation, emotional norm, personality norm, etc. This also includes
issues of gender and age differences. One of the main meanings
term "norm" (lat. norma) - an established measure, the average value of something
or. The concept of norm is relatively constant. Its content depends on
culture and changes significantly over time.
The concept of "abnormal child".
TO abnormal(from Greek - incorrect) include children who have
physical or mental abnormalities lead to disruption of the general
development. A defect (Latin - lack) of one of the functions disrupts development
child only under certain circumstances. The presence of one or the other
defect does not yet predetermine abnormal development. One hearing loss
ear or visual impairment in one eye does not necessarily lead to a defect
development, since in these cases the ability to perceive
sound and visual signals. Defects of this kind do not disrupt communication
with others, do not interfere with mastery of educational material and learning in
mass school. Therefore, these defects are not the cause
abnormal development.
A defect in an adult who has reached a certain level of general
development cannot lead to deviations, since his mental
development took place under normal conditions.
Thus, children with mental disorders are considered abnormal
development due to a defect and in need of special training and
education.
hearing (deaf, hard of hearing, late deaf); visually impaired
(blind, visually impaired); with severe speech impairments (speech pathologists); With
intellectual development disorders (mentally retarded, children with
mental retardation); with complex disorders
psychophysical development, (deaf-blind, blind, mentally retarded,
deaf, mentally retarded, etc.); with musculoskeletal disorders
apparatus.
There are other groups of children with disabilities and disabilities
development, for example children with psychopathic forms of behavior.
Training and education of abnormal children, their inclusion in public
life and production activities are complex social and
pedagogical problem.
Abnormal children are a complex and diverse group. Various
developmental anomalies have different effects on the formation of social
connections of children, on their cognitive capabilities and work activities. IN
Depending on the nature of the violation, some defects can completely
overcome in the process of child development, others only need to be corrected, and
some are only compensated. Complexity and nature of the violation
normal child development is determined by various forms
pedagogical work with him.
The nature of the violation of the child’s physical and mental development has
influence on the entire course and final result of the development of his cognitive
activities...
The educational level of abnormal children varies sharply. One of them
can master only basic general educational knowledge,
others have unlimited possibilities in this regard.
The nature of the violation also affects the students’ abilities
special schools in relation to practical activities. Some students
special schools acquire high qualifications, others can
perform low-skilled work and require special organization
their life and work.
L. S. Vygotsky
emphasized that attitudes towards the environment are changing with
with age, and, consequently, the role of the environment in development also changes. He
emphasized that the environment must be considered not absolutely, but relatively,
since the influence of the environment is determined by the child’s experiences L S Vygotsky
introduced the concept of key experience. As L later rightly pointed out.
And Bozhovich, “the concept of experience, introduced by L. S. Vygotsky, highlighted and
outlined that most important psychological reality, from the study
in which it is necessary to begin an analysis of the role of the environment in the development of the child; experience
represents, as it were, a knot in which diverse influences are tied
various external and internal circumstances."
L. S. Vygotsky formulated a number of laws of mental development
Child development has a complex organization in time: its own rhythm,
which does not coincide with the rhythm of time, and its own tempo, which changes in
different years of life. Thus, a year of life in infancy is not equal to a year of life in
adolescence.
The law of metamorphosis in child development: development is a chain of qualitative
changes A child is not just a small adult who knows less
or less, but a creature with a qualitatively different psyche
The law of uneven child development: each side in the psyche
child has its own optimal period of development. This law is associated
L. S. Vygotsky's hypothesis about the systemic and semantic structure of consciousness.
The law of development of higher mental functions. Higher mental
functions arise initially as a form of collective behavior, as
a form of cooperation with other people and only subsequently do they
become internal individual (forms) functions of the
child Distinctive features of higher mental functions:
indirectness, awareness, arbitrariness, systematicity; They
are formed intravitally; they are formed as a result of mastery
special tools, means developed during the historical
development of society; the development of external mental functions is associated with
learning in the broad sense of the word, it cannot occur except in
form of assimilation of given patterns, therefore this development goes through a series of
stages The specificity of child development is that it does not obey
the action of biological laws, as in animals, and the action of social
nohistorical laws. The biological type of development occurs in the process
adaptation to nature by inheriting the properties of the species and by
individual experience. Humans do not have innate forms of behavior
environment. Its development occurs through the appropriation of historical
developed forms and methods of activity.
The conditions of development were later described in more detail by A.N.
Leontyev. These are morphophysiological features of the brain. and communication.
These conditions must be set in motion by the activity of the subject.
An activity occurs in response to a need. Needs are also not
are innate, they are formed, and the first need is the need for
communication with an adult. On its basis, the baby enters into practical
communication with people, which is later carried out through objects and through
According to L. S. Vygotsky, the driving force of mental development is learning.
It is important to note that development and learning are different processes. According to
L. S. Vygotsky, the development process has internal laws
self-expression. “Development,” he writes, “is a process of formation
person or personality, accomplished by arising on each
stages of new qualities specific to a person, prepared by everyone
previous course of development, but not contained in finished form on
earlier stages."
Learning, according to L. S. Vygotsky, is internally necessary and universal
moment in the process of development in a child is not natural, but historical
human characteristics. Learning is not the same as development. It creates
zone of proximal development, that is, it brings the child to life, awakens
and sets in motion internal processes of development, which initially for
children are possible only in the sphere of relationships with others and
cooperation with comrades, but then, permeating the entire internal course
development become the property of the child himself.
L. S. Vygotsky carried out experimental studies
relationship between learning and development. This is the study of everyday life and
scientific concepts, research on the acquisition of native and foreign languages,
oral and writing, zones of proximal development. Last thing -
the genuine discovery of L. S. Vygotsky, which is now known to psychologists
all over the world.
Zone of proximal development- this is the distance between the level
actual development of the child and the level of possible development
determined through problems solved under the guidance of adults. How
writes L. S. Vygotsky, “the zone of proximal development determines functions, not
still ripe, but in the process of ripening; functions that
can be called not the fruits of development, but the buds of development, flowers
development. . . The level of actual development characterizes the success of development,
development results as of yesterday, and the zone of proximal development
characterizes mental development for tomorrow."
The concept of the zone of proximal development has an important theoretical
significance and is associated with such fundamental problems of children's and
educational psychology, as the emergence and development of higher
mental functions, the relationship between learning and mental development,
driving forces and mechanisms of child mental development.
The zone of proximal development is a logical consequence of the law of formation
higher mental functions, which are formed first in joint
activities, in collaboration with other people, gradually become
internal mental processes of the subject. When mental
the process is formed in joint activities, he is in the zone
immediate development; once formed it becomes a form
actual development of the subject.
The phenomenon of the zone of proximal development indicates the leading role
training in the mental development of children. "Training is only good then,"
wrote L. S. Vygotsky, “when it goes ahead of development.” Then it
awakens and brings to life many other functions lying in the zone
immediate development. In relation to school, this means that learning
should focus not so much on already matured functions that have been completed
development cycles, how much for maturing functions.
A. Vlasova and M.S. Pevzner
identified the two most
numerous groups and characterized them as: -
1. children with psychophysical infantilism. These are children with disabilities
the pace of physical and mental development. ZPR caused by
the slow rate of maturation of the frontal region of the cerebral cortex and
its connections with other areas of the cortex and subcortex; -
children with mental infantilism.
These are students with functional mental disorders
activity (cerebroasthenic conditions), as a consequence
brain injuries.
Forms of intellectual disability in children with mental retardation (G.E.
Sukharev):
1) intellectual impairment due to unfavorable
environmental and educational conditions or behavior pathology;
2) intellectual impairment with long-term asthenic
conditions caused by somatic diseases;
3) disorders in various forms of infantilism;
4) secondary intellectual disability due to the lesion
hearing, vision, speech defects, reading, writing;
5) functional-dynamic intellectual impairments in
children in the residual stage and late period of infections and injuries
K.S. Lebedinskaya
proposed a clinical taxonomy of children with
1. ZPR of constitutional origin.
2. ZPR of somatogenic origin.
3. Mental retardation of psychogenic origin.
4. ZPR of cerebroorganic origin.
All options differ in their structure and ratio:
type of infantilism and the nature of neurodynamic disorders.
V.V. Kovalev
divided the ZPR based on the pathogenetic principle:
1) dysontogenetic forms in which insufficiency
caused by mechanisms of delayed or distorted development;
2) encephalopathic forms, which are based on organic
damage to brain mechanisms in the early stages of ontogenesis;
3) intellectual disability associated with defects
analyzers and sensory organs and caused by the action of mechanisms
sensory deprivation;
4) intellectual disability associated with defects
education and lack of information from early childhood
(“sociocultural mental retardation”).