What is stained glass and mosaic? How to make a mosaic

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Introduction

Stained glass and mosaics, in the past, had their main purpose in serving architecture. They complemented and explained the language of her images. Their thematic content served the purposes of church and political propaganda; softened the harsh darkness of Gothic churches with their bright colors.

The analogy between stained glass and mosaic lies in the commonality of the material from which images of these two genres are made. This is colored glass, but in mosaic art the glass is muted, and in stained glass it is transparent. Mosaic uses the effect of reflected light, while stained glass uses the effect of transmitted light. Glass, especially polished glass, has a high reflectivity, and the brightness of mosaic colors surpasses anything that painting on any opaque material can provide. This is precisely the main advantage of mosaic monumental images over fresco, oil and other types of painting.

However, the saturation and richness of color shades that are observed in colored transparent glass when viewed in transmitted light cannot be compared with anything. The art of stained glass, which is based on the full use of the unsurpassed optical properties of transparent glass, brilliantly solved the decorative problem.

Stained glass

The term "stained glass" comes from the French word "vitre" (window glass). Stained glass is a decorative ornamental or thematic composition intended to fill a window opening, made from pieces of multi-colored glass, often painted with paints that are fixed to the glass by firing. Separate, figuratively cut pieces of glass are usually fastened together with lead bridges, forming a complex patterned binding. In especially large windows, the area of which measures tens of square meters, the sash is cut out of stone, such as marble or limestone, and its individual parts are connected to each other with metal pins and brackets. Finally, some elements of window fittings, such as the frame that borders the entire composition, are usually made of iron or wood.

Stained glass windows are transparent paintings, drawings, patterns made of glass or on glass. They are usually installed in light openings such as windows, doors, and lanterns. Nowadays, due to the improvement of artistic glass processing, the concept of stained glass has also expanded. Stained glass is any decorative glass filling of window and door openings, lanterns, lampshades, vaults, domes, solid wall planes and even special decorations of artistic products.

Stained glass windows in the form of ornamental compositions, patterns or paintings are made of clear or colored glass, with painting of individual parts or the entire plane of the glass with ceramic paints or without painting. Stained glass windows made from individual glass parts are reinforced with lead tape; monolithic glass does not require reinforcement.

The purpose of stained glass is varied: they are a rich decorative decoration of buildings and individual rooms, replace window glass and door panels, transmit light and make it possible to isolate the premises of the first floors from prying eyes.

Reflecting in your images the character and purpose of the structure and complementing it artistic image, stained glass plays a significant role in interior design.

Stained glass art has its origins in the distant past. Stained glass windows, which previously represented a set of colored glass, often served as a random decoration of the room; Over time, their composition, drawing, artistic glass processing and execution technique were improved. Stained glass windows became genuine works of art, an integral part of the strictly thought-out monumental and decorative decoration of buildings.

Stained glass, which was used mainly in the decoration of churches and monasteries, is gradually penetrating residential and public buildings. The religious theme of stained glass windows is being replaced by a secular one, reflecting the modern trend in art, following the aesthetic requirements and spirit of the era.

There are many stained glass windows created in the world by outstanding painters and skilled craftsmen. The name of the author or master often tells us artistic value one or another work of art. However, many wonderful stained glass windows were created by the hands of masters whose names remained unknown to us. An artist belongs to his era, but works of art often outgrow their era and become eternal. Similar stained glass masterpieces have been preserved in France, Germany, Italy, Switzerland, England, the Netherlands, Czechoslovakia and other countries. The stained glass windows stored in the State Hermitage in St. Petersburg are worthy of attention.

Stained glass windows benefit not only from bright sunlight, but also from the soft tones of sunset and sparkling evening lights. As for artificial lighting of stained glass windows, even with fluorescent lamps, it has been established that such lighting gives stained glass windows a frozen expression; it cannot cause that play of light and shadows, those light and color effects that are created by natural lighting, endlessly changing to throughout the day and throughout the year. It is, of course, possible in some cases to use special installations with synchronously changing artificial lighting, but this already falls into the realm of expensive equipment and hardly justified effects.

It is difficult to say when the first stained glass windows were created. In any case, there is no reason to claim that they appeared soon after the invention of glass. It is only known that a mosaic of small plates of colored glass was discovered in ancient Rome times of the empire (first century BC, beginning of AD) and in the temples of the first Christians. Windows of the St. Sophia Cathedral in Constantinople, which became the capital of Byzantium in 330 AD. e., were glazed with colored glass, apparently soon after the construction of the cathedral.

According to some literary sources, it is known that during excavations of the cities of ancient Italy Pompeii and Herculaneum, which died in 79 AD. e. During the eruption of Vesuvius, colored glass mosaic floors, wall paintings and fragments of stained glass were discovered. According to other sources, only glass mosaics of floors and walls were discovered in Pompeii, since the houses had few windows and mostly without glass. But the use of window glass is confirmed by pieces of frosted or, perhaps, opaque glass found during excavations.

Colored window glazing was originally a glass mosaic inserted into the stone and wooden openings of the window tracery. Then a mosaic of colored glass appeared, cut and assembled in a lead frame in the form of a pattern, geometric or floral design. Such mosaics were assembled in a metal frame and installed in window openings. It is very likely that the colors used in large windows were intense and bright, while in small windows they were used pale and calm.

Colored glazing gradually formed a special branch of decorative art and became equal among other branches and types of art.

Over time, the requirements for glass mosaic designs have increased. We tried to shade colored glass by applying darker colors. The results were positive. The technique of coloring glass by firing was discovered in the 9th century. This new technique has found widespread use. Thus, glass painting arose and developed at the end of the 10th century. With the development of glass painting, glass mosaic began to fade into the background, but it was not completely supplanted, but continued to exist in combination with glass painting.

Lead and black paint were used to make stained glass with human figures.

Mosaic

Mosaic is a special type of art. Mosaic, in the broadest sense of the word, is a special kind of visual arts, in which the design is reproduced by means of suitably arranged pieces of some solid material, fastened together and with the base by one or another binder. From this point of view, we must include among mosaic products patterns made from pieces of baked clay, inserted into the walls of the peoples of the ancient cultures of Mesopotamia and Egypt, and decorative floors of the Middle Ages, lined with large glazed tiles, and miniature medallions, the design of which is composed of precious stones or The smallest glass pieces can only be clearly examined with a magnifying glass.

In accordance with the variety of types and scales of mosaic art, the materials used in it also vary. Mosaicists use glazed ceramic plates, natural stones of all kinds, and the most perfect material for this purpose - colored glass.

The binding materials that secure the mosaic set to the base are also presented in a significant variety: lime, all types of cements, and various mastics are used, which include flour, glue, gypsum, chalk, drying oil and similar substances.

Finally, the shapes and sizes of the pieces of material from which the paintings are assembled are different, the methods of their preliminary preparation are different, as well as the methods of the composition itself and the final processing of the surface of the finished image.

All this taken together makes mosaic technology both in terms of manual typing techniques and in terms of manufacturing and preparation necessary materials The subject is quite extensive, covering many diverse issues.

As you know, all works of mosaic art can be divided into two large groups. The first of them is represented by mosaics of the so-called “composite” type, where the image is composed of many small cubes having approximately the same shape and size. The second group includes “piece” mosaics, on which the design is laid out from figuratively cut colored plates of various shapes and sizes. Sometimes such plates, tightly fitted to one another, completely cover the entire field of the image, and in other cases they are cut individually or in groups into a marble, slate or some other board that serves as the background for the picture.

Usually for this type of mosaic they use colored natural stones, ceramics, and less often glass smalts. Such mosaics are used to create elegant floors, table tops, frames for mirrors and paintings, inserts for decorating valuable types of furniture, as well as in jewelry technology in the manufacture of brooches, medallions, rings with inlays made of glass or precious stones.

The first type of mosaic was called by the Romans Opus tesselatum, the second - Opus sectile. Finally, let us point out one more technical technique - Opus vermiculatum, which is a certain development of the Opus tesselatum technique, adapting it to the execution of fine details of the picture. In this technique, pieces of stone or glass smalts, having a wide variety of shapes and sizes, are arranged in sinuous lines when creating a mosaic, precisely following the contour of the design.

Using the Opus vermiculatum mosaic technique, characterized by great variety and flexibility visual arts, the most significant works known in the history of mosaic painting were created. This typesetting technique gave the artist unlimited opportunities to realize his creative vision in such a noble and durable material as glass.

It must be emphasized that there was no sharp boundary between these mosaic typing techniques. Ancient artists usually used combined techniques. For example, in mosaic floors, simpler ornamental motifs were set from cubes using the Opus tesselatum technique, while a painting placed in the middle of the floor, more subtle in design and color, was set using the Opus vermiculatum technique. It also happened that in a mosaic picture, human figures and especially faces were made from the smallest pieces of various sizes and shapes, and the background was made from large cubes of the same size.

Armed with a combined technique, mosaic was used in ancient times and is used now as the closest auxiliary to architecture in the construction of ceremonial buildings, revealing and concretizing the majestic, silent images of architecture. Here mosaic appears in its sublime quality, as one of the noblest types of monumental art.

It is this group of the most common and important mosaics that we will mainly keep in mind when describing the technological process.

As in many branches of artistic glassmaking, the technology of mosaic art is behind long years its existence has not undergone significant changes. Therefore, I will not clutter up the presentation with numerous references about which particular period this or that technique belongs to, given that almost any technique that we use now could, in terms of its technical level, be attributed to the past. Let us first dwell on the main material of mosaic painting - smalt, or musia, as it was called before.

Smalt

The term "smalt" was used in the Middle Ages to designate a special type of enamels. In the sense that we give to this word now, it began to be used relatively recently. Smalt by its nature is an ordinary silicate glass, or rather its variety, represented by a group of nep

In terms of their composition, smalts belong to the group of lead silicate glasses. A significant lead content helps to lower the cooking temperature and increase the brightness of the colors achieved. The pursuit of this effect often leads to an increase in lead content to unacceptable limits, which often results in insufficient strength and durability of the material.

As is known, the main specific property of mosaic smalts is their muting.

The opacification of glass occurs as a result of the distribution throughout its entire mass of countless tiny crystalline particles, which were obtained either because the opacifier introduced into the charge (a substance that contributes to the clouding of glass) did not dissolve during glass melting, or because, having dissolved during melting, it separated during cooling in the form of small crystals. The sizes of such crystals can be very small, less than one micron (thousandth of a millimeter). There are up to several hundred thousand of them in one cubic millimeter.

By themselves, these crystals are usually completely transparent, but their refractive index differs from the refractive index of the surrounding glass, as a result of which the light rays incident on them deviate from their straight direction and the glass ceases to be transparent, remaining only translucent. It transmits light through itself, but the object located behind such glass remains invisible.

Since ancient times, bone meal, i.e. calcium phosphate, as well as oxides of tin, arsenic and antimony have been used as glass suppressants. It was with the use of these mufflers that the smalts of all mosaics known to us were welded, from antique ones to those that adorn the walls of St. Isaac's Cathedral in St. Petersburg.

Nowadays, fluorides (cryolite, fluorspar and some other natural and artificial fluorine compounds) are most often used for killing. Compared to the above mufflers, fluorides have a number of significant technical and economic advantages and are becoming more and more widespread every year.

The second, no less characteristic property of smalt is the richness and variety of color. They say that the famous “papal” mosaic workshop in Rome stored 28 thousand different color shades of smalt in its warehouses. The Leningrad mosaic workshop has a stock of 15 thousand varieties of smalt of different colors, prepared back in the century before last by the St. Petersburg Glass Factory.

History of stained glass

We find the first information about the use of glass in the decoration of public buildings in Pliny the Elder’s treatise “Naturalis historia”. Detailing the history of the art of creating pavements (inlaid floors based on paintings), Pliny notes that only in his time, that is, not earlier than the last quarter of the 1st century BC. e., “the pavements displaced from the ground moved to vaults, already made of glass.” Later in the literature there are only isolated references to the use of colored glass in window frames. They date back to the 4th-7th centuries and come from Byzantium. The first prototypes of medieval stained glass, discovered in the churches of the monasteries of Jarrow and Monquirmoth in north-east England, date back to the 7th century. Ornamental and figured glass has already been used here, although not painted. Perhaps the oldest surviving fragment of stained glass with full painting is the head from the Lorsch monastery (now kept in the Hesse Museum in Darmstadt). This fragment is dated differently, but most likely it was created in the second half of the 9th century.

Until the beginning of the 12th century, stained glass was rare, although written sources report that churches were already decorated with stained glass scenes from the Bible and the lives of saints, as well as monumental portraits of individual historical and legendary figures. In the Middle Ages, information about painted glass is found in sources from the 11th century. The learned monk Theophilus wrote in the book “Scedula diversarum artium”: “You, who will read this book! I have not hidden from You anything that I know. I have taught You what many Greeks know in the art of selecting and mixing colors, Italians in the chasing of silver, the cutting of ivory, the grinding of thin stones, for which Tuscany is famous, the arts of Damascus, which the Arabs possess, the things that Germany is strong in: the forging of gold, iron, copper, in the combination of precious and brilliant window glass, which France is famous for" .

The earliest surviving stained glass windows, created in the mid-11th century, are in Germany. They are inserted into the window openings of the central nave of the Augsburg Cathedral. It is known that Augsburg stained glass windows were made in the Tegernsee monastery, located near Augsburg, where there were stained glass workshops in the 11th century.

The stained glass windows of the Church of Saint-Denis near Paris date back to 1140-1144, surviving to this day only in fragments. The art school, located at the Saint-Denis monastery, developed under the leadership of the minister of King Louis VII - Abbot Suger. To raise the prestige of royal power, Suger undertook the construction of the Saint-Denis Cathedral, which served as the tomb of the French kings. To decorate the cathedral he invited greatest masters of their time, which significantly expanded the range of subjects traditionally used in the composition of stained glass windows. Borrowed from the Bible, these subjects provided scope for the creative imagination of artists. Saint-Denis combined elements and motifs that we now consider characteristic features of Gothic art, becoming the basis for the emergence of a new style - Gothic.

The transparency of the buildings of Gothic architecture led to the almost complete disappearance of the continuous space of walls, and thereby the main carrier of pictorial images used in Romanesque art. The compact wall space of the Romanesque era was transformed into a Gothic translucent system of columns and windows. The first cathedrals built in the Gothic style were Notre Dame in Paris and Canterbury Cathedral. During Canterbury's many renovations, the choir of Holy Trinity Chapel, the apse and the tomb of Thomas Becket received large new windows filled with historical scenes. For the first time in medieval art, narrative descriptions of contemporary events were created in the tomb.

The stained glass art of France reached its highest level in the 13th century. The main center for the production of painted glass moved to Chartres, where an independent school of craftsmen was formed. It is known that in the first half of the 13th century alone, artists of this school made stained glass for more than 200 Gothic windows. These data indicate the scope of activity and popularity of Chartres masters. Chartres School in early XIII century played the same role as Saint-Denis in the 12th century.

In the second half of the 13th century and further - during the 14th century, with the historical descent of Gothic, the prerequisites for the further productive development of stained glass were lost. The entire further path of painting (a branch of which in its essence at that time was stained glass as an art form operating with figurative colorful images on a plane) during the late Gothic period and, in particular, with the onset of the Early Renaissance, was aimed at the increasing objectification of visible images, at all their closer correlation with real empirics. This path meant an inevitable departure from those forms of implementation that, during the early and mature Gothic period, gave examples of the highest artistic productivity in the art of stained glass. Departing from the principles of a monumental mosaic of color planes, stained glass, in its pictorial essence and in its technical techniques, was increasingly approaching a pictorial painting, inevitably losing its initially strong qualities. The decisive feature of stained glass creations from the time of mature Gothic was their ensemble character, which in its utmost expression united extensive cycles of window compositions into an all-encompassing pictorial shell of the temple interior. Contrary to this, in late Gothic and, to an even greater extent, in the early Renaissance decades, easel features grew in the art of stained glass and, as a natural consequence of this, the “piecemeal nature” of stained glass works was established, their transformation into separate autonomous objects, accompanied by the loss of true monumentality. And with the advent of the Renaissance, with the disappearance of frame forms of Gothic architecture, stained glass is deprived of the natural environment of its existence and loses its status as an epoch-making artistic branch, equal in rights with other forms of art.

History of mosaic

The territory of distribution of mosaic, unlike other universal arts, is limited: it includes Western Europe, North Africa and part of the Middle East - this is where the art of mosaic reached its heyday.

Interesting examples of mosaic art are already found in the states of pre-Columbian America, but in those days mosaics were used exclusively to decorate religious objects.

IN Ancient Greece and in Rome, mosaic became widespread. In the 4th century BC e. in the city of Pela, the birthplace of Alexander the Great, the sidewalks were decorated with pebble mosaics. Later, mosaics began to be made from processed stones, pricking them into pieces and thus assembling the overall picture. It was this mosaic that began to be called Roman. Soso of Pergamon made a mosaic called “Dirty Floor”, in which, with the help of colored stones, he very realistically depicted on a white background all sorts of scraps that had fallen on the floor. In addition, he placed a shadow from the remains of food lying on the floor, thereby giving them volume. The composition became incredibly popular, and the artists had many imitators. In all Roman cities, both central and provincial, there were many buildings decorated with mosaics.

Another peak in the development of mosaic art was noted in the Byzantine period. In Byzantium, mosaics occupied a dominant position in the system of picturesque decoration of churches. The famous Ravenna mosaics have exceptional impact; their shimmering surface and golden backgrounds enrich the space of the temple. The splendor of the golden backgrounds is striking (researchers in the Church of St. Sophia of Constantinople, for example, counted about thirty shades of gold alone). The shimmering effect of the surface was achieved thanks to exquisite masonry, when pieces of smalt in different parts of the image are placed at different angles. During the period of iconoclasm, many masters and mosaic artists moved to Italy. Therefore, the richest collection Byzantine mosaics can be seen right here.

Mosaics spread widely not only to the west, but also to the east of Constantinople. In the Muslim East, mosaics cover the walls and domes of numerous buildings.

Starting from the 14th century, painting subjugated mosaic, and it lost its independent language. Many famous Renaissance artists made sketches from which the mosaic was subsequently created. These works of art were executed in such a way that only when approaching them closely did the viewer understand that this was a mosaic, and not a painting. At the same time, micromosaics were also popular for decorating furniture and household items. In their manufacture, stones with a diameter of about one millimeter were used.

The founder of mosaic art in Russia is the great Russian scientist M.V. Lomonosov. Using the sampling method, he developed methods for casting and processing domestic smalt. For this purpose, a factory was built near St. Petersburg. Lomonosov personally typed some of the works, including the portrait of Peter 1. In the mid-19th century, the mosaic workshop of the Academy of Arts was founded to translate pictorial sketches of St. Isaac's Cathedral into mosaics. The finest in color and tone ratio, the picturesque panels were made according to sketches by Bruni, Bryullov and other artists. To organize the work, chemists from the Vatican workshops were invited to Russia. They established the production of up to 17,000 smalts of various colors. The collection of mosaics for St. Isaac's Cathedral was carried out over 65 years, until the 1917 revolution. In St. Petersburg there is another temple with mosaic decoration that needs to be mentioned. This is the Church of the Resurrection of Christ, usually called “Savior on Spilled Blood”.

At the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, mosaics began to be widely used in the design of building facades. In Soviet times, mosaics were widely used in the design of public interiors. In Moscow we can see the most famous mosaic works at the Mayakovskaya, Kyiv, Paveletskaya metro stations. Monumental art was the most important part of Soviet ideology.

Types of stained glass, modern stained glass

Sandblasting stained glass is a type of stained glass that is a group of glasses (panels) made in one technical technique related to sandblasting, and united by a common compositional and semantic idea, as well as arrangement in sections of frames.

Mosaic stained glass is a typesetting stained glass window, usually ornamental, having a geometric structure; may resemble a mosaic with a smalt module of approximately the same size. The mosaic set was used as a background, but can also be used independently, covering the space of the windows with a continuous carpet. As modules for a mosaic set, molded shaped parts of complex relief, cabochons, polished inserts, etc. are often used.

Typesetting stained glass is the simplest type of stained glass, usually without painting, which is created on a typesetting table from pieces of immediately cut or pre-cut glass.

Painted stained glass is a stained glass window in which all (or almost all) glass is painted, regardless of whether the picture is painted on solid glass or assembled into a frame from painted fragments. Minor inclusions of faceted, faceted, pressed glass are possible.

Etched stained glass - stained glass is a group of glasses (panels) made in one technical technique related to the etching technique and united by a common compositional and semantic idea, as well as arrangement in sections of frames.

Lead-soldered (soldered) stained glass is a classic stained glass technique that appeared in the Middle Ages and served as the basis for all other techniques. This is a stained glass window assembled from pieces of glass in a lead frame, sealed at the joints. Glass can be colored and painted with paint made from fusible glass and metal oxides, which is then fired in specially designed furnaces. The paint is firmly fused into the glass base, forming a single whole with it.

Faceted stained-glass window is a stained-glass window made of glass with a chamfer removed along the perimeter of the glass (beveled, chamfered) or voluminous, ground and polished glass that has a cut. To obtain a wide chamfer (this enhances the effect of light refractions), thicker glass is required, which increases the weight of the stained glass window. Therefore, the finished beveled parts are assembled into a more durable (brass or copper) frame. It is better to place such stained glass in interior doors or furniture doors, because such a frame is able to withstand the loads of opening/closing, and the lead in this case sags. The golden hue of a copper or brass frame gives things a precious look, being visible not only in the light, but also in reflected light, which is especially important for stained glass furniture.

Combined stained glass is a stained glass window that combines several techniques, for example: a painted medallion and mosaic technique, beveled glazing as a background. In the old days, such combinations were achieved by adjusting ready-made, often purchased stained glass windows to fit a wider window opening, when the missing parts were simply delivered, giving this glazing the appearance of an ornament. Combined stained glass is very popular today: it allows you to achieve a richness of textures, optical effects, decorative richness when creating abstract compositions, solving complex figurative problems, and creating an atmosphere built on contrasts.

Cabochon - a relief figured insert in a stained glass window, mostly transparent, often pressed or cast (bent) into a mold, appearance resembling a drop of water or a glass button. A stained glass cabochon can be a hemisphere or a slightly flattened hemisphere with a rim for mounting in a frame, as well as a more complex shape. mosaic stained glass colored glazing

The “Frost” pattern is a glass texture obtained by applying wood glue or gelatin (fish glue is also suitable) onto a previously sandblasted, scratched, etched or abraded surface. This technique uses the property of drying glue to decrease in volume. Hot glue flows and eats into the roughness of the appropriately treated surface, and as it dries, it begins to rebound, tearing out thin plates of glass. The result is a texture whose pattern resembles frosty patterns on a window.

Natsvet is a thin layer of colored glass lying on top of a thicker (usually colorless) one in a single piece. The color is produced by "hot" molding. Removing this layer by engraving, sandblasting or etching allows you to obtain a very contrasting, silhouette pattern (white on a colored background or vice versa).

Etching is a technique based on the ability of hydrofluoric acid to react with silicon dioxide (the main component of glass). When interacting with acid in this way, glass is destroyed. Protective stencils make it possible to obtain a design of any complexity and required depth.

Multilayer etching is etching with special compounds in several plans, achieved by gradual etching of glass to different depths, gradual removal of protective varnish or its gradual application. The result is a more voluminous pattern, even a noticeable relief on the glass, rather than just matting the surface using a stencil. A matte stencil design made in one step is the simplest method of etching, which does not require additional removal or application of varnish, because The glass is not re-etched.

Frame designations. Frame, braid, broach, shank, profile - professional designations for the frame into which shaped parts (glass) are inserted to form a stained glass window. In classic stained glass, the frame material is lead. In the 16th century Rollers were invented for the production of lead profiles, which improved the quality of work and significantly speeded up the process of creating stained glass windows. Since then, the frame has taken its profile by rolling through mechanical rollers from lead castings previously cast into a wooden or metal mold.

A glass tile is a decorative part specially made for stained glass assembly in the form of a flat circle with characteristic radial ridges (irregularities in the glass formed from rotation during the manufacturing process). The manufacturing technology is the same as for the production of glass tiles (nickels) - a round plane on which the glass is placed. Externally, the leg part of the glass and the stained glass part are almost the same.

Transparency (transparent or transparent glass) - translucent glass, transparent painting on glass, perceived by light. Transparent painting is, as a rule, painting with non-firing compositions, for example, pigment with some kind of binder, painting with oil or tempera paint, often on frosted glass. Transparent painting was popular at the dawn of the surge in stained glass art in Russia due to its not particularly complex execution technology (compared to painting with fired glass paints).

Erklez is a decorative insert into a stained glass window in the form of a small block of thicker glass with a surface in the form of chipped edges. Such inserts are cut out of glass, ground according to a template, and then trimmed with a specially sharpened tool. In the chipped surface, sunlight sparkles especially.

Bending is the bending of stained glass in a kiln to give it a semicircular cylindrical or angular shape. The technology replicates fusing, but the temperature conditions and equipment are different.

Shebeke or panjara is an openwork lattice, which is a window frame, usually carved from stone or wood, often with multi-colored glass.

Modern stained glass

Modern stained glass is a narrative or ornamental composition made of colored glass or other material that transmits light. In a classic (composite) stained glass window, individual pieces of colored glass, cut according to a certain pattern, are connected to each other by a profile made of lead, copper or brass. The richer the texture of the glass, the more beautiful and impressive the modern stained glass window. The sun's rays, when refracted, make the glass burn with bright, rich colors, making it new and unique every time. Painting in classic stained glass is done with special fired paints; it does not fade or wear off for many years.

Stained glass using Tiffany technique

The vast majority of stained glass windows are made using the Tiffany technique. Glass, thanks to its unique properties, opens up endless possibilities for creativity and the implementation of new ideas. The Tiffany technique makes it possible to produce volumetric stained glass windows in which individual stained glass elements are made convex or concave. This gives the stained glass additional originality and uniqueness. When working with this technique, each piece of glass is ground, wrapped in copper tape, and then soldered to other stained glass elements. The Tiffany technique allows you to use more small details, while the lines of the pattern on the stained glass turn out to be thin and elegant.

Modern stained glass windows using the Tiffany technique are made using ersatz technology. Colored glass cut into cardboard, tracing paper or templates is wrapped around the edges with a strip of thin copper foil with glue applied to it. Then all the glasses are connected, soldered together and tinned with tin solder and tinted with special preparations.

Stained glass on brass fittings.

Compared to stained glass with lead fittings, brass stained glass is much stronger. However, relatively hard and rigid brass is inferior to lead in ductility. This property of brass does not allow the reinforcement to be bent along a strongly curved line. Therefore, stained glass with brass fittings is characterized by compositions using glass that has a mainly rectilinear configuration or a weakly expressed curvature.

Glass painting

One of the most labor-intensive types of stained glass art. The artist and performer are required to have in-depth general artistic and special training, and most importantly, perfect mastery of the technical techniques of painting. The peculiarity of painting on glass is that the glass surface is devoid of pores, and therefore has low adhesion to colorful surface coatings. To ensure high-quality adhesion of the painting layer to the glass surface, special paints and ovens are used for firing them.

Stained glass in Flora style

Decorating the environment is as ancient an art as folklore or music. Floral ornaments have adorned clothing and homes at all times. Many styles are based on a floral basis.

Fusing

Fusing is a technique that eliminates the use of a metal profile. A pattern is assembled from its pieces on a separate sheet of glass, and then everything is sintered in an oven into a single layer. Often, details created in this way are also used in classical stained glass. Fusing technology achieves an extraordinary decorative effect of stained glass, which fits perfectly into a modern interior. Using this technology, large openings of any shape and almost any volume can be filled.

This procedure can be carried out in several ways, but the most common is "molding". That is, in order to give the already fused glass the shape of a bowl, a molding (mold) is used. There are other methods based on the principle of fusing technology:

- combined carding, in which a tool is used to deform the shape of the glass while it is hot;

- Fire polishing, which uses a furnace to heat the glass to make it smooth and shiny.

Types of mosaics, modern mosaic

Glass mosaic is an alloy of siliceous sand and other components with the addition of coloring oxides, powdered gold, and aventurine. This mosaic has unique water-repellent characteristics. The main advantages of glass mosaic tiles include a wide selection of colors and an unlimited number of color combinations. Glass mosaic has a wide range of applications: walls and floors in any enclosed space, from kitchens to swimming pools and bathrooms, as well as furniture surfaces, fireplaces, building facades. The richness of the color palette provides ample opportunities for creating decorative panels, patterns and ornaments. An extreme variety of degrees of transparency, strength and immunity to temperature influences and aggressive environments, ease of shaping into any shape are the qualities that make glass a truly stunning construction and decorative material. Due to its unique water-repellent characteristics, glass mosaics are used to decorate pool bowls, water parks, fountains, pool walls, rooms and bathrooms.

Smalt mosaic differs from ordinary glass mosaic in being especially durable. Smalt contains potassium salts and other natural compounds that give the material its color. Modern smalt is obtained by pressing small particles of densely colored glass with the addition of oxides. As a result, the material acquires excellent physical and chemical properties: impact resistance, frost resistance, resistance to aggressive environments. Smalt is interesting because it is opaque, but seems to glow from within. In addition, each cube is a slightly different shade from the others. Because of this, a large surface lined with smalt of the same color does not look dull. Modern technologies allow you to obtain up to 10 thousand shades of smalt. Smalt mosaic is easy to recognize by its rich color; even the lightest colors do not have any white inclusions. In addition to appearance, smalt differs from glass in technical characteristics. It is characterized by resistance to abrasive wear, which makes it suitable for installation in places with increased load. It is excellent for flooring in areas with heavy traffic: stairs and landings, halls and corridors.

Ceramic mosaic is made from pieces of ceramic tiles of different shades and a huge range of colors, which allows you to create almost any design. For laying ceramic mosaics, adhesive for tiling rooms with ceramic tiles is suitable. An extremely interesting effect is created by the combination of polished and unpolished surfaces - from a certain angle of view, mosaic pieces with a polished pattern begin to sparkle. Ceramic mosaic can be simply glazed, or it can contain all sorts of “special effects” - craquelure (small cracks on the surface), stains, inclusions of a different color, imitation of an uneven surface. The surface laid out with it will be more embossed than that finished with glass mosaic. Ceramic mosaic is stronger than glass, which is combined with resistance to abrasive wear and an original appearance. Ceramic mosaics are suitable for covering a wide variety of surfaces, including swimming pools, building facades, walls and floors of bathrooms and kitchens.

Stone mosaics are made from a wide variety of stones, from tuff to the rarest types of marble, onyx and jasper. The color of the natural material is unique, the play of structures is unusual, so each mosaic image of a stone mosaic is unique. The stone can be left polished, honed, or it can be “aged” - then the color will be more muted and the edges smoother. Elements are produced in a wide variety of shapes - from round to irregular. This type of mosaic can be used for flooring in the same rooms where natural stone coverings are usually used. Stone mosaic can also be used as fragments or as a decorative insert.

Metal mosaic can be steel or golden in color, depending on the metal used in production. Pieces of such a mosaic resemble miniature sandwiches: a metal mold made of stainless steel or brass is pressed onto a plastic base on top. In addition to standard square ones, elements of other shapes with different textured surfaces are offered. Oval, hexagonal, rectangular, diamond and square elements allow you to lay out an intricate rug on the wall or floor. The surface is made polished, matte, with notches different types and finally covered with a thin layer of brass or bronze.

Gold mosaic is an indisputable sign of luxury. It consists of 585 gold foil, enclosed between thin plates of special glass. Production is completely manual. There are collections with yellow, white gold or platinum. Obviously, the price of such material is considerable. Therefore, most often gold mosaic is used individually, making inserts. Gold mosaic tiles can be used for both walls and floors.

Modern mosaic.

Industrial technologies for the production and installation of mosaic compositions have replaced ancient secrets. Today there are many companies specializing in this. And each offers its own sketches and stories, of which there are usually hundreds in catalogs. But if none of them satisfy the customer’s tastes, drawings proposed by the customer himself can also be used. Of course artistic expression mosaic panels are achieved not only by the complexity of the design, but also by the variety of materials that make it up.

Currently, mosaic is experiencing a rebirth. Increasingly, you can see mosaic floors in a variety of rooms: in swimming pools, in exhibition halls, hotel lobbies, in cafes, shops, on verandas, in hallways and corridors of residential buildings, etc. However, even in the USSR, mosaics enjoyed success and were often used in construction, especially public buildings

Modern mosaic erases all the boundaries and canons of classical art, however, based on them, providing the artist with maximum freedom in creativity, to achieve the most daring ideas, artists use combinations of smalt, metal, wood, polymers, ceramics, glass and various improvised objects that may turn out to be just garbage (the so-called “trash mosaic”).

All these experiments with materials make a huge contribution to the development of what seems to be the most ancient and conservative art form.

Conclusion

The age of stained glass art is two to three times shorter than the age of mosaic art. Nevertheless, the historical fates of these two genres of monumental painting are similar. Both mosaic and stained glass became most widespread during the Middle Ages and, having reached the apogee of their perfection in the Renaissance, began to quickly lose importance as independent branches applied arts, which formed an integral part of the architecture.

Since the 17th century. both mosaic and stained glass openly take the path of copying oil painting and gradually give way to a much less complex fresco technique.

The development of stained glass, just like mosaics, had to keep pace with the advances in glassmaking.

However, in mosaic, the requirements for glass were very modest. It was enough to have small pieces of multi-colored opaque glass of any shape, splitting them with a hammer, as was done with natural stones, the artist received the cubes he needed to complete the picture. People learned to cook colored glass in small pieces a long time ago, and glass mosaics became widespread even at the end of old era chronology.

The stained glass requirements for glass are much more stringent. First, glass had to be transparent, and transparency was achieved much later. Secondly, it was necessary to have glass in the form of relatively thin sheets, which people learned to do only at the beginning of the Middle Ages, and even then very unskillfully at first: the glass turned out to be unequal in thickness, with rough surfaces and in sheets of very small size.

List of used literature

Winner A.V. Materials and techniques of mosaic painting. M. 1953

Makarov V.K. The artistic heritage of M.V. Lomonosov “Mosaic” M. 1950

History of art of foreign countries: the Middle Ages. Ed. Dobroklonsky M.V.M. 1982

Gusarchuk D.M. “300 answers to a lover of art works” Moscow.1986

Maria di Spirito “Stained Glass Art” Albom publishing house. 2008

Website http://www.art-glazkov.ru/

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Mosaics have become especially widespread

The earliest examples of it were found in southern Mesopotamia and date back to the 4th millennium BC. e. The mosaic of the Red Temple in Uruk (Mesopotamia, 3rd millennium BC) has been preserved, which is a clay coating of the walls inlaid with colored heads of clay cones. One of the finds in the Palace of Knossos, dating back to the early Minoan period, indicates that mosaic work was known during the Cretan-Mycenaean culture.

During the Hellenistic era, mosaic art reached a high level.

The mosaic floors of the houses of the ancient cities of Olynthos, Delos, Priene, Pompeii, and wonderful pebble mosaics are well known ancient city Pells. Precious and semi-precious stones were often used in mosaics that decorated temples and palaces.

By this period, which covers the period from the 3rd century. BC e. up to the 1st century n. e., date back to the beginning of the Greeks’ use of smalt and glass mosaics.

Colored glass not only enriched the mosaic, but also gave this ancient art form new artistic possibilities.

The beauty of glass has made this material the most popular for mosaics; the stone remained only in the floor mosaics.

During this period, in Egypt, which was part of the Ptolemaic monarchy, under the influence of the culture and crafts of Greece, mosaics began to be made in the glass workshops of Alexandria. Thin plates were cut from glass rods of various colors, which were used to decorate dishes, and much later, the walls and floors of buildings.

The earliest known glass mosaics were found in Lower Egypt. During the Roman Empire, mosaics were used to decorate the pools of fountains, the walls of baths and nymphaeums, the floors and walls of palaces and mansions.

From III – IV centuries. began to widely use smalts, which gave the mosaics depth of colors, sonority and shimmering tones thanks to the golden underlying layer. In the IV – V centuries. mosaics of amazing decorative richness are created; An example is the mosaics in the rotunda of St. George in Thessalonica.

But mosaic art reached a special flowering on the territory of the Byzantine Empire in the 5th – 6th centuries.

During this period, magnificent mosaics of the Cathedral of St. Sofia and the Great Palace of the Emperors in Constantinople, as well as the churches of Ravenna in Northern Italy. Byzantine influence affected the character of the Ravenna mosaics - they have a golden background. The mosaics on the inner surface of the dome of the mausoleum of Galla Placidia are among the best among the early Ravenna mosaics.

From the 9th century Local mosaic schools began to develop rapidly. The art of mosaic is expanding into new territories.

Mosaics were used in the interior decoration of St. Sophia Cathedral and St. Michael's Monastery in Kyiv in the 11th century. The floors, walls, columns and vaults of the St. Sophia Cathedral were lined with mosaics, which were considered lost for a long time. IN late XIX V. the surviving fragments were rediscovered.

In Kievan Rus, mosaics were used to decorate churches in Novgorod, Pereyaslav-Khmelnitsky, Polotsk, Chernigov, etc. Excavations in Kyiv in 1951 discovered workshops for the production of smalt, mosaics, enamels, and glass products dating back to the second half of the 11th century.

From the 12th century is developing rapidly Venetian school mosaics.

During this period, mosaics of the Cathedral of St. Mark (XIII – XIV centuries). Mosaic rises to the heights of independent decorative art.

History has brought to us many magnificent mosaic works. These days, beautiful mosaics decorate modern buildings.

Among other types of architectural and artistic glass used for cladding and decorating interiors, one can name mirror glass, which has been used for a long time, sheets of colored glass, glass elements for interior decoration, glass slabs that have appeared relatively recently, etc.

The first mirror appeared in Venice in the 14th century, and in the 17th century. production of mirror glass has become widespread. It was widely used for interior decoration. In the 18th century colored and milky-white glass was used in interior decoration.

At the end of the 17th and beginning of the 18th centuries. The Venetian glass industry began producing chandeliers made of clear glass. The production of chandeliers, sconces, and floor lamps made of glass and crystal has become especially popular in France and Russia. WITH early XVIII V. The demand for such products has increased sharply. Architects widely used glass and crystal for interior decoration. Outstanding Russian architects used glass to solve a wide variety of decorative and monumental problems, especially in the era of classicism.

Nowadays, glass is widely used for interior decoration of buildings. Along with performing utilitarian functions, such finishing, as a rule, has high decorative qualities and makes the interior more expressive.

The most significant application of glass in construction is the use of glass in glazing structures

Window glazing was first used by the Romans shortly before the new era. Early Roman houses were illuminated and ventilated through doorways opening into the atrium. However, already during the time of the Roman Republic (VI century BC - 27 AD), windows were widely used in residential buildings, palaces, and public buildings. The first glazing appears.

The “terra forum” built in Pompeii (80 BC) had fairly large glazed windows. The glazing was thick cast glass with fused edges in a bronze frame.

When constructing residential buildings, more and more attention was paid to the connection between the internal space and the environment. The interior spaces opened up to the outside world through galleries, windows, porticoes or wide openings into courtyards with gardens, fountains and sculptures.

In continental Europe, Scotland and Ireland, windows developed from doorways, where they were used for both light and passage. Later, this solution took the form of a fan-shaped window above the door and half-glazed doors. Glass gradually replaced mica, marble, parchment, alabaster and other opaque materials in doorways. The spread of glass making in European countries accelerated the use of glass in window openings.

However, glass from workshops Western Europe the quality was lower than that of Egypt and Rome. It had cracks, bubbles and other defects; its color range was limited, and the range of products was more than modest.

And only the glass production of Byzantium, which arose even before Roman rule in the 6th century. BC e. and reached its peak by the 4th century. n. e. under Emperor Constantine the Great, who gave glassmakers great privileges, the quality of products and the skill of artisans could be compared with the production of Egypt and Rome. Byzantine colored and gilded glass was especially famous.

In 1688, in France, and later in England, a method of producing thick glass using casting, which was then ground by hand, appeared. This glass was used for glazing windows and making mirrors. The casting method made it possible to produce sheets of quite large sizes. Window frames made of wood, stone, plaster, bronze, steel acquire modern look. The traditional way of using sheet glass is developing - in the form of glazing in frames that fill openings in solid walls.

During the 19th century there were several changes architectural styles, the windows took different shapes but always remained openings in a massive load-bearing wall. At the same time, glass was given a modest place to fill light openings and did not play a dominant role in shaping the architectural appearance of the building facades.

Romanesque architecture was based on the use of arched vaults. Her character traits- massive stone walls with small, sparse windows in the depths of the niches, which is why there was not enough lighting inside the rooms. The Gothic style, which replaced Romanesque architecture, was called upon to solve this problem.

The leading type of building in Gothic architecture is the majestic structure, the city cathedral. The size of the cathedrals and the richness of their decoration served as an expression of the power and wealth of the cities. With the advent of pointed arches and flying buttresses, the size of windows increased significantly, but the span of the window determined the height of the floor. In cathedrals, the height of the floor could be significant, but in civil buildings the windows remained narrow and small.

Decorative stained glass occupied a special place in the architecture of the past.

Colored stained glass windows first appeared in the 6th century. in Byzantium, decorating the windows of the Cathedral of St. Sophia.

Stained glass consisted of fragments of colored flat glass, cut out according to a specific pattern and joined together with a lead profile.

Glass for stained glass was first produced by casting, and then by blowing. The sheets were about 1 cm thick, their surface was uneven and rough, and the glass was not transparent enough.

In the Middle Ages, a craftsman would boil glass in a ceramic pot and then produce a sheet of glass by casting or blowing. Probably, the artist was present when the glass was melted or selected glass of the required colors from one prepared in advance by the artisan. Drawings and sketches were made with charcoal on boards, and later on parchment. Glass cutting According to the drawing, it was carried out like this: the glass was heated in the right place with a hot metal rod, and then cooled with water, and a crack formed. By developing the crack in the desired direction, glass of the required shape was obtained. Each piece of glass was finally adjusted to the design using a tool that was the prototype of the modern glass cutter.

In the 10th century stained glass windows began to be painted with ceramic paints.

Fragments of glass were temporarily fastened and the main elements of the image and details were drawn: faces, folds of clothing, hands, etc. The painted pieces of glass were fired in a furnace at a temperature below the melting point of glass. The lead H-shaped profile was smelted in a stained glass workshop. The finished pieces of stained glass were assembled according to the drawing. The joints of the lead rod were connected by soldering on both sides. Along the perimeter of the stained glass window was framed by a massive lead profile, which was attached to the racks in the window.

During the VI – IX centuries. The technique of making stained glass spread throughout Europe. The treatises of Gregory of Tours and Fortune indicate that the technology for making stained glass in the 6th century. was well known in Gaul.

Stained glass art reached its peak in the 12th century. on the territory of France.

This period coincided with the emergence of the Gothic style in architecture. The earliest are the stained glass windows of the Church of the Abbey of Saint-Denis, dating back to the beginning of the 12th century. In almost all major cities, churches are built that are decorated with stained glass:

Cathedral Notre Dame of Paris in Paris (1163-1196),
Cathedral in Lana (1180-1220),
Church of Saint-Rémy in Reims (1170-1181),
Cathedral of Chartres (circa 1200),
Cathedral in Mana (mid-XI - mid-XIII centuries),
Amiens Cathedral (1218),
Cathedral of Poitiers (circa 1215),
Cathedral in Angers (second half of the 12th century), etc.

Chartres Cathedral is the only one in which almost all the stained glass windows have been preserved intact.

As the Gothic style developed, the windows in the buildings became larger, and the images of figures in the narrow windows became increasingly elongated.

One of the common elements of decorating the facades of Gothic cathedrals is the round stained glass window, the “rose”. However, increasing the size of the windows of Gothic cathedrals did not improve the illumination inside, because by the middle of the 13th century. stained glass windows were made from intensely colored glass; their designs were complex and rich.

By the beginning of the 14th century. appears T a technique for making stained glass “grisaille”, in which the entire surface of colorless glass was covered with a light monochrome continuous pattern, and a more intense and more relief pattern was applied on it.

Further development of the Gothic style led to an increase in the size of windows, at which walls practically ceased to exist. The glass surfaces of the cathedrals were almost entirely decorated with stained glass. Example - Holy Chapel in Paris, XIII century.

In Germany, painting on glass appeared in the 10th century, by the middle of the 11th century. it has become widespread.

One of the earliest are the stained glass windows of the Augsburg Cathedral, dating back to the 11th century. By the 14th century glass painting reached its peak. During this period, stained glass windows were created in the windows of the Erfurt and Cologne cathedrals, the Königsfelden Church in Aargau, etc.

Among the most significant examples of English stained glass are the windows of Merton's College in Oxford, dating back to the 13th century, and the windows of Wells and York Cathedrals.

In the XIV – XV centuries. Decorative stained glass windows with images of secular content appeared; stained glass windows are increasingly used in buildings for non-religious purposes. Stained glass technology developed and enriched, and the palette of colors increased. In the middle of the 17th century. stained glass art fell into decline and was revived only in early XIX V.

In Central Asia and the Middle East colored glass has been used in ornamentation in residential buildings, palaces and temples from ancient times to the present day. Colored stained glass windows in an ornamental frame were an organic continuation of the wall decor.

Stained glass windows made by ancient architects of the East differ significantly from European ones. They contain mainly blue and blue glasses rich tones with small inclusions of red glass, which creates the overall color scheme of the interior in cold tones and, in combination with the painting of the walls and ceiling, also in cold blue tones, evokes a feeling of coolness.

The functions of colored stained glass are varied

First of all, like regular glazing, they transmit light and protect from bad weather. Stained glass windows, complementing the artistic image of the building, play a significant role in the formation of the interior and, moreover, are a means of emotional impact. This property has long been used in places of worship to create a religious and mystical mood.

In secular buildings, colored glazing created a feeling of coolness or warmth, thus compensating for the deficiencies of the external environment.

Read about how glass appeared

Don't miss: How glass was used in architecture of the 19th-20th century and what transformations await architectural glass in

Mosaics and stained glass must preserve the overall structure of the architectural ensemble, otherwise they will simply lose their meaning. The most labor-intensive and oldest technique of wall painting is fresco (“al fresco” - raw), i.e. painting on wet plaster.

The masters used a special pigment diluted with water as paint for painting the fresco. At the same time, the simultaneous drying of the paints and the base guaranteed the durability and strength of the coating. This effect was achieved due to the film formed when calcium carbonate dries, which served as a kind of paint fixer. The color palette of the fresco differs from the mosaic and is represented in natural pastel colors. An experienced fresco artist knows that after drying, the fresco painting becomes paler, and the fresco is done only in parts while the plaster is still wet. If there are any mistakes in the painting, nothing can be corrected; you can only remove the entire layer of damaged plaster. This is exactly what the great Michelangelo did, and the world now admires his creation in the Sistine Chapel.

Mosaic

An equally popular painting technique was mosaic - an image that was held on a cement base and consisted of pieces of multi-colored materials (marble, pebbles, smalt, semi-precious stones, colored glass) of various shapes tightly fitted to each other.

The first ancient mosaics decorated the floors of palaces and noble houses in Rome and Pompeii. They depicted copies of paintings by Greek masters and created landscape compositions. Gradually, mosaics made of colored glass (smalt) moved from the floors to the vaults and walls of churches. In order for the light to play and shine, pieces of smalt lay unevenly on the surface, which gave a great light reflection effect. It is precisely because of this property of mosaics that a special light aura has been preserved in medieval cathedrals today.

Stained glass

The name "stained glass" in French means window glass. According to history, the first stained glass windows adorned the churches of the Catholic Church back in the first century AD. Due to the use of colored glass, the light passing through the stained glass is colored and creates an atmosphere that is optimal for places of worship.

The oldest works in Europe are considered to be five fragments of stained glass windows from the Augsburg Cathedral. They are made of bright multi-colored glass using tonal shading and painting techniques, which only the highest skilled craftsmen could do.

Panel

A panel means a fragment of a wall, highlighted by any edging and filled inside with a sculptural or pictorial image. As a type of monumental painting, the panel can be executed in the form of a painting or a relief image. The panel can be made either from tiles, in the form of wood carving, embossing, gypsum stucco, etc. You can purchase a ready-made panel from tiles or wallpaper, or you can bring your own bold idea to life.

Origin of the term Stained glass

The term " stained glass" comes from the French word " vitre" (window glass). Stained glass is a decorative ornamental or thematic composition intended to fill a window opening, made from pieces of multi-colored glass, often painted with paints that are fixed to the glass by firing.

Separate, figuratively cut pieces of glass are usually fastened together with lead bridges, forming a complex patterned binding. In especially large windows, the area of which measures tens of square meters, the sash is cut out of stone, such as marble or limestone, and its individual parts are connected to each other with metal pins and brackets. Finally, some elements of window fittings, such as the frame that borders the entire composition, are usually made of iron or wood.

Stained glass and mosaic

Stained glass, just like mosaic, in the past had its main purpose in serving architecture. He complemented and clarified the language of her images. Just like the mosaic, the stained glass window served the purposes of church and political propaganda with its thematic content; softened the harsh darkness of Gothic churches with its bright colors.

Finally, analogy between stained glass and mosaic lies in the commonality of the material from which images of these two genres are made. Here and there it is colored glass, but in mosaic art the glass is muted, and in stained glass it is transparent. Mosaic uses the effect of reflected light, while stained glass uses the effect of transmitted light. Glass, especially polished glass, has a high reflectivity, and the brightness of mosaic colors surpasses anything that painting on any opaque material can provide. This is precisely the main advantage of mosaic monumental images over fresco, oil and other types of painting.

However, the saturation and richness of the color shades that we observe in colored transparent glass when viewed in transmitted light cannot be compared with anything. Stained glass art, which is based on the full use of the unsurpassed optical properties of transparent glass, brilliantly solved the decorative problem.

The age of stained glass art is two to three times shorter than the age of mosaic art. Nevertheless, the historical fates of these two genres of monumental painting are similar. Both mosaic and stained glass became most widespread during the Middle Ages and, having reached the apogee of their perfection during the Renaissance, they quickly began to lose importance as independent branches of applied art, which formed an integral part of architecture.

Since the 17th century. both mosaic and stained glass openly take the path of copying oil painting and gradually give way to a much less complex fresco technique.

History of stained glass

Let us now get acquainted with the history of stained glass art. Let's start with technological issues. It is quite clear that the development of stained glass, just like mosaics, had to keep pace with the successes of glassmaking.

Stained glass requirements for glass

Stained glass requirements for glass are much more stringent. First, glass had to be transparent, and transparency was achieved much later. Secondly, it was necessary to have glass in the form of relatively thin sheets, which people learned to do only at the beginning of the Middle Ages, and even then very unskillfully at first: the glass turned out to be unequal in thickness, with rough surfaces and in sheets of very small size.

Monk Theophilus, in his famous work written in the 12th century, gives a fairly detailed description of the contemporary method of making sheet glass, without, unfortunately, indicating the time of invention of this method.

Most ancient stained glass technique represented in the windows of Christian basilicas in the first centuries of the medieval period. History has not preserved for us any of the rare monuments of this kind, but from some literary sources we can guess that it was a primitive set of multi-colored pieces of glass of different sizes and uneven thickness, forming a carpet-type pattern. Pieces of glass were apparently strengthened with putty in the slots of wooden, marble or stone boards inserted into window openings.

By this time, people had already learned how to make transparent colored glass, but did not yet know how to give it the shape of a thin sheet, but the colors were so varied and bright that, according to the testimony of Greek and Latin writers of the 4th-6th centuries, such windows in temples were made by visitors are greatly impressed.

For example, Fortunach, Bishop of Poitiers, who lived in the 6th century, in solemn verses glorifies the persons who decorated the basilicas with colored glass, and describes the effect of the first rays of dawn playing in the windows Paris Cathedral. One of the Latin poets of the 6th century. glorifies the magical play of the sun's rays passing through the colored glass in the windows of the Temple of Sophia in Constantinople. The Roman poet Prudentius (IV-V centuries), who visited the court of Emperor Honorius, compares the colored glass in the windows of the Basilica of the Apostle Paul with a spring meadow dotted with bright flowers.

Patterned, contour, mosaic, picturesque stained glass windows

Any room requires its own color filling. We are accustomed to the fact that this function is usually carried out by wallpaper, carpets, lamps, or, at worst, paintings or panels. Let us recall one more decorative element - stained glass, which can add the brightest and most decisive accents to the color ensemble.

Patterned stained glass– assembled from pieces of transparent colorless glass with a textured patterned surface. Assembly in the form of a pattern or geometric ornament made according to a pre-prepared drawing. By selecting glasses with different textures, it is possible to create very attractive patterns. In cases where glass with the same texture is used, a pattern or ornament can be obtained by different arrangements of glass parts. The contours of the lead frame and the sizes of individual glasses play an important role in the formation of the stained glass pattern.

Contour (silhouette) stained glass windows- collected from glass discs, similar to the bottoms of bottles, one-color, but often greenish or colorless glass. These discs are laid in horizontal and vertical rows, the spaces between them are filled with pieces of glass of a different configuration, and the entire set is held together with a lead vein.

Mosaic stained glass windows– assembled from colored glass and have the appearance of a geometric and floral ornament or carpet pattern. For mosaic stained glass windows, inlay from ready-made cast glass rosettes is often used. In addition to mastering the technique of cutting glass, bending and soldering lead strands, the master must have an understanding of color and light, be able to select glass by colors and shades, depending on the location of the opening intended for installing stained glass.

Picturesque stained glass– assembled from colored glass, painted with ceramic paints and then fired individual parts. Picturesque stained glass can be ornamental or narrative, but mainly in the form of a combination of these types. Polished mirror glass is of little use for this purpose, since paints do not cover it well. After firing the glass painting, the paints are sintered with the glass and appear as one whole. Any painting on glass with sintered paints is in many ways inferior in terms of purity and brightness of colors and light transmission to stained glass windows made from colored glass, painted during their manufacture.

When painting glass, despite the fact that after firing it becomes one with the molten paints, a thin film remains, like a patina, that forms on the surface of metal products as a result of their oxidation.

Stained glass transparencies– are produced using photographic techniques, photo printing on glass or photo etching. They are used for glazing small openings in exhibition pavilions and educational display cases. Photo printing on glass and photo etching are relatively new methods.

Combined stained glass- these are combinations of stained glass windows various types and styles. For this type of stained glass, individual finished parts, cast glass rosettes and laminated glass processed by acid etching or other methods can be used.

The purpose of stained glass is varied: they are a decorative decoration of buildings and premises, replace window glass and door panels, transmit light and make it possible to hide the premises of the first floors from prying eyes.

The latest glass production technologies have significantly expanded the possibilities of functional use of stained glass. Along with the usual role of stained glass as filling an opening, techniques have become increasingly common where glass is used in the most unpredictable ways: as decor for suspended ceilings; as partitions and screens delimiting space; how to design lampshades, sconces; as inserts into furniture (cupboards, cabinets) or countertops; or as decorative design of rooms in the form of panels or even solid planes.

Thanks to the increased attention to the value of “pure” material, its surface, and texture, glass products become not only a precious insert into a frame, but also a completely independent, valuable work in itself.

Modern stained glass designed for electric lighting, which significantly expanded the possibilities of its use in architecture - not only in windows, but also in interior partitions and suspended ceilings.

The widespread use of double-glazed windows in modern construction required the introduction of the latest stained glass technology based on solid glass, a special colored laminate and lead profiles of various sections.

Stained glass windows assembled using this technology are no different in appearance from classic ones. This method can be used not only for restoration, but also to create the effect of antiquity.

Do not think that stained glass windows are only suitable for churches or, at worst, restaurants, clubs and shops. The unique characteristics of stained glass are especially interesting in residential interiors. It can be used to decorate a window while maintaining transparency, or it can be used as a bright spot that serves as protection from prying eyes.

Due to its light transmittance, the plane of a stained glass window can serve as an excellent zoning technique that does not violate the integrity of the perception of space.

It is especially worth noting that only stained glass is capable of creating a special light-air environment in the interior, a changeable and unpredictable play of color. Stained glass is unthinkable without light, so the ability of glass to scatter light, but not absorb it, allows you to create unusual color schemes in the interior using stained glass.

Modern stained glass, types of stained glass

Sandblasting stained glass

Sandblasting stained glass is a type of stained glass that is a group of glasses (panels) made in one technical technique related to sandblasting, and united by a common compositional and semantic idea, as well as arrangement in sections of frames.

Mosaic stained glass

Mosaic stained glass is a typesetting stained glass window, usually ornamental, having a geometric structure; may resemble a mosaic with a smalt module of approximately the same size. The mosaic set was used as a background, but can also be used independently, covering the space of the windows with a continuous carpet. Molded shaped parts of complex relief, cabochons, polished inserts, etc. are often used as modules for mosaic sets.

Stacked stained glass

Typesetting stained glass is the simplest type of stained glass, usually without painting, which is created on a typesetting table from pieces of immediately cut or pre-cut glass.

Sintered stained glass (fusing)

Sintered stained glass or fusing is a stained glass technique in which a pattern is created by jointly baking multi-colored pieces of glass or by baking foreign elements (for example, wire) into glass.

Painted stained glass

Painted stained glass is a stained glass window in which all (or almost all) glass is painted, regardless of whether the picture is painted on solid glass or assembled into a frame from painted fragments. Minor inclusions of faceted, faceted, pressed glass are possible.

Etched stained glass

Etched stained glass - stained glass is a group of glasses (panels) made in one technical technique related to the etching technique and united by a common compositional and semantic idea, as well as arrangement in sections of frames.

Solder stained glass

Glass can be colored and painted with paint made from fusible glass and metal oxides, which is then fired in specially designed furnaces. The paint is firmly fused into the glass base, forming a single whole with it.

Faceted stained glass

Faceted stained-glass window is a stained-glass window made of glass with a chamfer removed along the perimeter of the glass (facet, chamfer) or voluminous, ground and polished glass that has a cut. To obtain a wide chamfer (this enhances the effect of light refractions), thicker glass is required, which increases the weight of the stained glass window. Therefore, the finished beveled parts are assembled into a more durable (brass or copper) frame. It is better to place such stained glass in interior doors or furniture doors, because such a frame is able to withstand the loads of opening/closing, and the lead in this case sags. The golden hue of a copper or brass frame gives things a precious look, being visible not only in the light, but also in reflected light, which is especially important for stained glass furniture.

Combined stained glass

Combined stained glass is very popular today: it allows you to achieve a richness of textures, optical effects, decorative richness when creating abstract compositions, solving complex figurative problems, and creating an atmosphere built on contrasts.

Cabochon

A cabochon is a relief shaped insert in stained glass, mostly transparent, often pressed or cast (bent) into a shape that in appearance resembles a drop of water or a glass button. A stained glass cabochon can be a hemisphere or a slightly flattened hemisphere with a rim for mounting in a frame, as well as a more complex shape.

Pattern "Frost"

Blossom

Natsvet is a thin layer of colored glass lying on top of a thicker (usually colorless) one in a single piece. The color is produced by “hot” molding. Removing this layer by engraving, sandblasting or etching allows you to obtain a very contrasting, silhouette pattern (white on a colored background or vice versa).

Etching

Etching is a technique based on the ability of hydrofluoric acid to react with silicon dioxide (the main component of glass). When interacting with acid in this way, glass is destroyed. Protective stencils make it possible to obtain a design of any complexity and required depth.

Multilayer etching

Frame designations

Frame, braid, broach, shank, profile are professional designations for the frame into which shaped parts (glasses) are inserted to form a stained glass window. In classic stained glass, the frame material is lead. In the 16th century Rollers were invented for the production of lead profiles, which improved the quality of work and significantly speeded up the process of creating stained glass windows. Since then, the frame has taken its profile by rolling through mechanical rollers from lead castings previously cast into a wooden or metal mold.

Glass tile

A glass tile is a decorative piece specially made for stained glass assembly in the form of a flat circle with characteristic radial ridges (irregularities in the glass formed from rotation during the manufacturing process). The manufacturing technology is the same as for the production of glass tiles (nickels) - a round plane on which the glass is placed. Externally, the leg part of the glass and the stained glass part are almost the same.

Transparency

Stained glass using Tiffany technique

Modern stained glass windows using the Tiffany technique are made using ersatz technology. Colored glass cut into cardboard, tracing paper or templates is wrapped around the edges with a strip of thin copper foil with glue applied to it. Then all the glasses are connected, soldered together and tinned with tin solder and tinted with special preparations.

Stained glass on brass fittings
Compared to stained glass with lead fittings, brass stained glass is much stronger. However, relatively hard and rigid brass is inferior to lead in ductility. This property of brass does not allow the reinforcement to be bent along a strongly curved line. Therefore, stained glass with brass fittings is characterized by compositions using glass that has a mainly rectilinear configuration or a weakly expressed curvature.

Glass painting
One of the most labor-intensive types of stained glass art. The artist and performer are required to have in-depth general artistic and special training, and most importantly, perfect mastery of the technical techniques of painting. The peculiarity of painting on glass is that the glass surface is devoid of pores, and therefore has low adhesion to colorful surface coatings. To ensure high-quality adhesion of the painting layer to the glass surface, special paints and ovens are used for firing them.

Stained glass in flora style
Decoration environment- the same ancient art like folklore or music. Floral ornaments at all times they decorated clothes and homes. Many styles are based on a floral basis.

Fusing
Fusing is a technique that eliminates the use of a metal profile. A pattern is assembled from its pieces on a separate sheet of glass, and then everything is sintered in an oven into a single layer. Often, details created in this way are also used in classical stained glass. Fusing technology achieves an extraordinary decorative effect of stained glass, which fits perfectly into a modern interior. Using this technology, large openings of any shape and almost any volume can be filled.

This procedure can be carried out in several ways, but the most common of them is “molding”. That is, in order to give the already fused glass the shape of a bowl, a molding (mold) is used. There are other methods based on the principle of fusing technology:

combined carding, which uses a tool to deform the shape of the glass while it is hot;

fire polishing, which uses a furnace to heat the glass to create a smooth, shiny finish.

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Introduction

Stained glass and mosaics, in the past, had their main purpose in serving architecture. They complemented and explained the language of her images. Their thematic content served the purposes of church and political propaganda; softened the harsh darkness of Gothic churches with their bright colors.

Stained glass

The purpose of stained glass is varied: they are a rich decorative decoration of buildings and individual rooms, replace window glass and door panels, transmit light and make it possible to isolate the premises of the first floors from prying eyes.

Reflecting in your images the character and purpose of the structure and complementing it artistic image, stained glass plays a significant role in interior design.

Colored glazing gradually formed a special branch of decorative art and became equal among other branches and types of art.

Lead and black paint were used to make stained glass with human figures.

Mosaic

In accordance with the variety of types and scales of mosaic art, the materials used in it also vary. Mosaicists use glazed ceramic plates, natural stones of all kinds, and the most perfect material for this purpose - colored glass.

The binding materials that secure the mosaic set to the base are also presented in a significant variety: lime, all types of cements, and various mastics are used, which include flour, glue, gypsum, chalk, drying oil and similar substances.

Finally, the shapes and sizes of the pieces of material from which the paintings are assembled are different, the methods of their preliminary preparation are different, as well as the methods of the composition itself and the final processing of the surface of the finished image.

All this taken together makes mosaic technology both in terms of manual typing techniques and in terms of manufacturing and preparation necessary materials The subject is quite extensive, covering many diverse issues.

It is this group of the most common and important mosaics that we will mainly keep in mind when describing the technological process.

Smalt

The term "smalt" was used in the Middle Ages to designate a special type of enamels. In the sense that we give to this word now, it began to be used relatively recently. Smalt by its nature is an ordinary silicate glass, or rather its variety, represented by a group of nep

As is known, the main specific property of mosaic smalts is their muting.

Nowadays, fluorides (cryolite, fluorspar and some other natural and artificial fluorine compounds) are most often used for killing. Compared to the above mufflers, fluorides have a number of significant technical and economic advantages and are becoming more and more widespread every year.

History of stained glass

History of mosaic

The territory of distribution of mosaic, unlike other universal arts, is limited: it includes Western Europe, North Africa and part of the Middle East - this is where the art of mosaic reached its heyday.

Interesting examples of mosaic art are already found in the states of pre-Columbian America, but in those days mosaics were used exclusively to decorate religious objects.

Mosaics spread widely not only to the west, but also to the east of Constantinople. In the Muslim East, mosaics cover the walls and domes of numerous buildings.

Types of stained glass, modern stained glass

Sandblasting stained glass is a type of stained glass that is a group of glasses (panels) made in one technical technique related to sandblasting, and united by a common compositional and semantic idea, as well as arrangement in sections of frames.

Typesetting stained glass is the simplest type of stained glass, usually without painting, which is created on a typesetting table from pieces of immediately cut or pre-cut glass.

Painted stained glass is a stained glass window in which all (or almost all) glass is painted, regardless of whether the picture is painted on solid glass or assembled into a frame from painted fragments. Minor inclusions of faceted, faceted, pressed glass are possible.

Etched stained glass - stained glass is a group of glasses (panels) made in one technical technique related to the etching technique and united by a common compositional and semantic idea, as well as arrangement in sections of frames.

Etching is a technique based on the ability of hydrofluoric acid to react with silicon dioxide (the main component of glass). When interacting with acid in this way, glass is destroyed. Protective stencils make it possible to obtain a design of any complexity and required depth.

Bending is the bending of stained glass in a kiln to give it a semicircular cylindrical or angular shape. The technology replicates fusing, but the temperature conditions and equipment are different.

Shebeke or panjara is an openwork lattice, which is a window frame, usually carved from stone or wood, often with multi-colored glass.

Modern stained glass

Stained glass using Tiffany technique

Stained glass on brass fittings.

Glass painting

Stained glass in Flora style

Decorating the environment is as ancient an art as folklore or music. Floral ornaments have adorned clothing and homes at all times. Many styles are based on a floral basis.

Fusing

This procedure can be carried out in several ways, but the most common is "molding". That is, in order to give the already fused glass the shape of a bowl, a molding (mold) is used. There are other methods based on the principle of fusing technology:

- combined carding, in which a tool is used to deform the shape of the glass while it is hot;

- Fire polishing, which uses a furnace to heat the glass to make it smooth and shiny.

Types of mosaics, modern mosaic

Modern mosaic.

All these experiments with materials make a huge contribution to the development of what seems to be the most ancient and conservative art form.

Conclusion

Since the 17th century. both mosaic and stained glass openly take the path of copying oil painting and gradually give way to a much less complex fresco technique.

The development of stained glass, just like mosaics, had to keep pace with the advances in glassmaking.

List of used literature

Winner A.V. Materials and techniques of mosaic painting. M. 1953

Makarov V.K. The artistic heritage of M.V. Lomonosov “Mosaic” M. 1950

History of art of foreign countries: the Middle Ages. Ed. Dobroklonsky M.V.M. 1982

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Mosaics have become especially widespread

The most significant application of glass in construction is the use of glass in glazing structures

Decorative stained glass occupied a special place in the architecture of the past.

In Germany, painting on glass appeared in the 10th century, by the middle of the 11th century. it has become widespread.

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