The concept of “art” is known to everyone. It surrounds us throughout our lives. Art plays a big role in the development of humanity. It appeared long before the creation of writing. From our article you can learn about the role and tasks.

What is art? general information

The concept of “art” is quite multifaceted. Usually it refers to the industry human activity, which can satisfy one spiritual need, namely the love of beauty. Art is a special form of social consciousness. It is precisely this that represents an artistic reflection human life. Thanks to it, you can find out how people lived in a different time period.

The very first author who revealed the concept of “art” was Charles Bateau. He created a whole treatise in which he classified this branch of human activity. His book The Fine Arts Reduced to One Principle was published in 1746. Charles Bateau believes that they can be defined according to several criteria. The author is sure that art brings pleasure, and it is also of a spiritual, not physical nature.

The concept of “art” includes painting, music, poetry, architecture and much more that we encounter every day. Any kind artistic activity differs in certain positive qualities. Each sphere of art has a special way of reproducing reality and artistic tasks. All types of artistic activity are divided into types and genres.
Art is usually divided into three groups:

• tonic (music and poetry);
• figurative (architecture, painting and sculpture);
• mixed (choreography, acting, public speaking and others).

There are various types of art:

• spatial, in which, thanks to construction, a visible image is revealed (sculpture, architecture);
• temporary, in which the composition unfolding in real time (poetry, music) acquires significance;
• spatio-temporal - performance art(circus performance, cinema, choreography).

Graphic arts

Graphic art is a type that includes drawing and printed graphics images (engraving, minotopia, etc.). Her means of expression- outline, stroke, background and spot. It is known that this is the most popular look visual arts. In its content and form, graphics have much in common with painting.

Engraving is a type of graphics in which the drawing is a printed impression. It is applied with a special engraver. The engraving can be depicted on metal, wood and linoleum.

Another popular type of graphics is a special method of flat printing, in which the surface of a stone serves as the printing plate. This type was invented in 1798. The image is applied to the stone using a special ink or pencil.

The art of graphics is the most ancient of all existing ones. The first images exist from the Neolithic and Bronze Ages. Our ancestors scratched designs on cave walls and rocks. After some time, the images were applied to weapons and household items. After writing appeared, graphics were used in the design of letters, books and charters.

Methods for copying designs were unknown for many years. That is why all images were created in a single copy. It is no secret that today such graphic drawings are in demand among collectors.

In the mid-20th century, specialists began to develop black and white graphics techniques. More than 20 graphic texture options were created. Training manuals were published. Today graphics occupies a leading place in art.

Bento

Bento is unusual art for children and adults. It's no secret that many parents don't know how to teach their child to healthy eating. Today, there is a large selection of unhealthy and even dangerous foods on store shelves. A new type of art can come to the rescue - bento. It appeared in China. This is the term the Chinese use to describe the food they pack in special boxes and take with them to school or work. A bento is a work of art that you can eat. Talented housewives and chefs create figurines and small paintings from food. The main difference between such food is balance and the presence of a large amount of vitamins. The Chinese create edible works of art only from healthy food.

Bento is an art for children and adults, thanks to which the child will enjoy eating healthy foods. In our country it is not yet so popular, but several masters are already known who have mastered this technique.

The influence of art on the consciousness and life of a child. How to explain modern works of art to a child?

Art plays an important role in a child's life and the development of his personality. Today, absolutely every person should have at least basic knowledge about this or that field of activity. Society is developing rapidly, and therefore each personality must be multifaceted. Many modern parents try to instill in their child a love of art as early as possible. For this purpose, a considerable number of parenting methods have been developed that can be used from the first months of a child’s life.

The child receives an understanding of the types of art at school. Typically, parents, teachers and educators pay a lot of attention to writing, reading, counting and other subjects for which the left hemisphere of the brain is responsible. To develop the right, you will need to engage in music, dancing and other types of arts. It is important to develop both hemispheres of the brain in order to later become a fully formed personality.

Thanks to mastering art in a child:

• personality is formed;
• the level of intellectual potential increases;
• moral guidelines are formed;
• the ability of creative thinking develops;
• self-confidence appears and self-esteem increases;
• memory and attention develops;
• horizons expand.

In order to introduce a child to art, it is important first of all to organize an area in which all the materials necessary for creative activity. You will need to have several books about art at home. WITH early childhood the child needs to read them. It is important to discuss everything you have learned. To get acquainted with art, you will need to visit museums, galleries, theaters and exhibitions with your child at least once a month. Under no circumstances should you throw away drawings, applications and crafts created by children. Thanks to them you can see the creative growth of the child. It is also important to enroll him in a thematic club as early as possible, activities in which he will like.

Some works contemporary art cause bewilderment not only from children, but also from adults. It is not uncommon for one child or another to not understand the architecture that was designed by the modernists. It is important to explain to the student that any work of art is an important stage in the development of humanity.

Abstract paintings raise many questions in children. There are a considerable number of special publications, thanks to which parents can show their child how difficult it is to create such a work of art. One of them is “Kandinsky to himself.”

Children are often interested in whether it is possible to compare modern and primitive art. You can find out this and much more in our article.

Art. The history of its development in Russia

Known a large number of various types of arts. Each of them has its own characteristics and advantages. What's happened art, almost everyone knows. Children are introduced to it at an early age.

This is a type of artistic activity, thanks to which a master can, using special means, reproduce the world. Its history in Russia is divided into two periods, the border of which was marked by Peter's reforms. B was closely connected with icon veneration. The icons had their own peculiar art style. The purpose of such works of art is to show prayerful composure and peace in communication with God. This is precisely what explains the presence in icons of some artistic means. Over time, the masters mastered and schools of icon painting opened. The most famous work is considered to be “Trinity” by A. Rublev. Icons from the 15th and 16th centuries are distinguished by their harmony of colors.

In the 17th century, icons of the “Fryazh script” were popular. They are characterized by elements of Western European painting, namely oil paints, a semblance of black and white modeling, an accurate depiction of people and nature. Interest in the icon as a work of art arose only in the 19th century.

Old Russian sculpture existed in the form of stone and wood carvings. Most often, masters depicted images of saints. Particular attention was paid to the face. In the 18th and 19th centuries, sculptors and painters from other countries were in demand. After some time, domestic masters became popular.

In the 18th century, it became most popular. It is characterized by the rigor of the design, the convention of color and the use of scenes from the Bible and mythology. Thus, national art gradually emerged.

In 1860-1880, the first galleries opened, and domestic masters became famous throughout the world. New directions are gradually emerging. Each of them occupied an important place in the formation of cultural heritage. In the 18th and 19th centuries, humanity not only knew what fine art was, but also actively used it.

Themes explored in art

Surprisingly, all the themes and problems that the masters reveal in their works of art have been relevant for many centuries. The ancient Romans argued that art, unlike human life, is eternal. This is no coincidence. Themes in art highlight social issues that are often encountered today. That is why they are of great value to humanity. Masters often reveal the theme of love, nature and friendship in their works.

Over time, trends in art change and new masters appear, but the themes and images remain unchanged. That is why any work remains relevant for many years.

Art and its role

The role of art in the life of society is invaluable. It is based on an artistic and figurative reflection of reality. Art shapes spiritual view people, their feelings, thoughts and worldview. The figurative recreation of reality creates our personality. Art helps you develop and improve yourself. And also to get to know the world around you and yourself.

Art is cultural heritage. Thanks to works of art, you can find out how people lived at one time or another. IN Lately Various art techniques are especially popular. Through art you can learn to control yourself. By creating an artistic object, you can forget about problems and get rid of depression.

Art and its tasks

Maxim Gorky believed that the tasks of art lie in the moral and aesthetic assessment of all significant phenomena. The writer said that thanks to this you can learn to understand yourself, fight vulgarity, be able to understand people and find something good in them. Today three functions of artistic activity are known. The tasks of art are research, journalism and education. Masters believe that the function of artistic activity is to bring beauty into the souls and hearts of people. Nikolai Vasilyevich Gogol argued that the task of art is to depict reality.

Modern and primitive art

Many people are interested in, At first glance, this is impossible. However, it is not. If we perceive art as a way of personal expression, then both the modern and the primitive are on the same plane. By comparing them, you can understand how a person’s perception has changed.

Human thinking has become more abstract. This indicates the active development of intelligence. Over time, man has changed his priorities and today perceives life differently than his primitive ancestors. Previously, masters were interested in the appearance of the object and its shape, but now main role Emotions are central to the works. This distinction has existed since the late 19th century.

Let's sum it up

It is important to develop not only the left, but also the right hemisphere of the brain from an early age. To do this you need to practice art. It is especially important to pay due attention creative development child. We strongly recommend doing this from the first years of his life. Not everyone understands the role, tasks and types of art. The briefly described information in our article allows you to get basic knowledge about various artistic fields of activity.

God lives in the details. Abi Warburg

A generous heart is the best inspirer of the mind. Alexander Bestuzhev

Art, like life, is beyond the capabilities of the weak. Alexander Blok

The artist's direct responsibility is to show, not prove. Alexander Blok

Inspiration is the disposition of the soul to the living reception of impressions, and therefore to the rapid understanding of concepts, which contributes to the explanation of them. Alexander Pushkin

Art is possible only when there is a need to independently construct an image - through the development of vocabulary, forms and content elements, and only then does it provide communication. Alexey Fedorovich Losev

No work of genius has ever been based on hatred or contempt. Albert Camus

Imagination is more important than knowledge. Albert Einstein

Art is the expression of the deepest thoughts by the most in a simple way . Albert Einstein

Art has two most dangerous enemies: a craftsman not illuminated by talent and a talent who does not master the craft. Anatole de France

Art is a reality ordered by the artist, bearing the stamp of his temperament, which manifests itself in style. Andre Maurois

Expressiveness for me does not lie in the passion that suddenly illuminates the face or manifests itself in violent movement. She is in the whole structure of my picture; the space occupied by objects, the spaces between them, their relationships - that’s what matters. Composition is the skill of decoratively arranging the various elements of a painting to express one's feelings. Henri Matisse

The significance of an artist is measured by the number of new signs that he introduces into plastic language. Henri Matisse

Each part of the picture plays its own role, major or minor. Everything that is not needed in the picture harms it. The work must have harmony of all parts; unnecessary detail can take the place of something significant in the viewer’s mind. Henri Matisse

The main task of color is to serve expressiveness. Henri Matisse

The most important thing for me is the idea. It is necessary to have a clear understanding of the whole from the very beginning. Henri Matisse

Accuracy is not yet the truth (about painting). Henri Matisse

Experience is knowledge of the individual, and art is knowledge of the general. Aristotle

Everyone must stand in front of the painting just as in front of the king, waiting to see if it will tell him something and what exactly it will say, and both with the king and with the painting he must not speak first, otherwise he will only hear himself. Arthur Schopenhauer

Art requires knowledge. Bertolt Brecht

A surefire sign that something is not art or someone doesn't understand art is boredom. Bertolt Brecht

In painting, whoever, having painted a face, adds something else, makes a painting, not a portrait. Blaise Pascal

Through the beautiful - to the humane. Vasily Alexandrovich Sukhomlinsky

The creation of a work is the creation of the universe. Wassily Kandinsky

Simplicity, truth and naturalness are the three main signs of greatness. Victor Hugo

Art without the idea that a person without a soul is a corpse. Vissarion Grigorievich Belinsky

Disadvantages are always where creativity ends and work begins. Vissarion Grigorievich Belinsky

If science is the memory of the mind, then art is the memory of feeling. Vladimir Alekseevich Soloukhin

When depicting something, we take on a huge responsibility - to understand nature and depict it as completely as possible. Vladimir Andreevich Favorsky

A portrait painter who no longer wants to express character, the history of a person in a portrait - what kind of portrait painter is this, what kind of artist is this, where is he good for? Vladimir Vasilievich Stasov

That is the only art that responds to real feelings and thoughts, and does not serve as a sweet dessert, which one can do without. Vladimir Vasilievich Stasov

In art, form is everything, material is worth nothing. Heinrich Heine

Art has as its task to reveal truth in a sensual form. Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel

Art wins by turning away from vulgarity. Georgy Plekhanov

Painting is passionate silence. Gustave Moreau

The sky through the branches is pearls and precious stones. Gustave Moreau

Color must be thought out, inspired, dreamed out. Gustave Moreau

Landscape for artists is usually a dish with spinach. Gustave Flaubert

The artist must be present in his work, like God in the universe: to be omnipresent and invisible. Gustave Flaubert

Neither art nor wisdom can be achieved unless it is learned. Democritus

The moment an artist thinks about money, he loses his sense of beauty. Denis Diderot

Art lies in finding the extraordinary in the ordinary and the ordinary in the extraordinary. Denis Diderot

A country in which they taught to draw in the same way as they teach to read and write would soon surpass all other countries in all the arts, sciences and crafts Denis Diderot

Art is only in its proper place when it is subordinated to utility. His task is to teach lovingly; and it is shameful when it only pleases people, and does not help them discover the truth. John Ruskin

When love and craftsmanship come together, you can expect a masterpiece. John Ruskin

A brush, hand and palette are needed to paint, but the picture is not created by them. Jean Chardin

They use paints, but write with feelings. Jean Chardin

It doesn’t matter where you get it from - it matters where (about creativity). Jean-Luc Godard

He who has imagination but no knowledge has wings but no legs. Joseph Joubert

Science calms, but art exists to prevent calm. Georges Braque

Serious art, like any serious business, requires a lifetime. Ivan Aleksandrovich Goncharov

In every work of art, great or small, down to the smallest, everything comes down to a concept. Johann Wolfgang Goethe

Art is a mirror where everyone sees themselves. Johann Wolfgang Goethe

Art is a mediator of what cannot be expressed. Johann Wolfgang Goethe

Every artist has courage, without which talent is unthinkable. Johann Wolfgang Goethe

The poet is the ruler of inspiration. He must command them. Johann Wolfgang Goethe

Technology combined with vulgarity is the most terrible enemy of art. Johann Wolfgang Goethe

Precisely because true art strives for something real and objective, it cannot be satisfied with only the appearance of truth. Johann Friedrich Schiller

Most bad pictures are not bad because they are poorly written, they are poorly written because they are poorly conceived. Johannes Robert Becher

Laws and theories are good in situations of uncertainty. In moments of inspiration, problems are resolved intuitively, by themselves. Johannes Itten

There is no need to copy nature, but you need to feel its essence and free it from accidents. Isaac Levitan

I'm never in a hurry to get to the details. Camille Corot

If you want to enjoy art, then you must be an artistically educated person. Karl Marx

A painting is a poem without words. Quintus Horace Flaccus

The purpose of art is to move hearts. Claude Adrian Helvetius

The artist's job is to create joy. Konstantin Georgievich Paustovsky

There is no art without experience. Konstantin Sergeevich Stanislavsky

Simplicity, truth and naturalness are the three great principles of beauty in all works of art. Christoph Gluck

Where the thought does not work together with the hand, there is no artist. Where the spirit does not guide the artist's hand, there is no art. Leonardo da Vinci

A painter who sketches senselessly, guided by practice and the judgment of the eye, is like a mirror that reflects all the objects opposed to it, without having knowledge of them. Leonardo da Vinci

Painting is poetry that is seen, and poetry is painting that is heard. Leonardo da Vinci

There are three kinds of people: those who see; those who see when they are shown; and those who do not see. Leonardo da Vinci

A true artist is devoid of vanity; he understands too well that art is limitless. Ludwig van Beethoven

There is talent in the design, art in the execution. Maria Ebner-Eschenbach

All arts consist in the exploration of truth. Marcus Tulius Cicero

Painting is jealous and demands that a person belong to it entirely. Michelangelo Buonarroti

Without a sense of modernity, the artist will remain unrecognized. Mikhail Mikhailovich Prishvin

God the Creator created man in his own image and likeness, that is, a creator, and called him to free creativity, and not to formal obedience to his power. Free creativity is the creature’s response to the great call of the Creator. And a person’s creative feat is the fulfillment of the innermost will of the Creator, which requires a free creative act. Nikolay Berdyaev

Art certainly strives for good, positively or negatively: whether it shows us the beauty of all the best that is in a person, or whether it laughs at the ugliness of all the worst in a person. If you expose all the rubbish that is in a person, and display it in such a way that each of the spectators will receive complete disgust for it, I ask: is this not already praise for everything good? I ask: is this not praise for good? Nikolay Gogol

The arts soften morals. Ovid

In essence, there is no perfect style, no perfect line, no perfect color, the only beauty is the truth,
which becomes visible. Auguste Rodin

The task of art is not to copy nature, but to express it. We must grasp the mind, meaning, appearance of things and beings. Honore de Balzac

Art is the clothing of a nation. Honore de Balzac

The truth of nature cannot and will never be the truth of art. Honore de Balzac

Art reflects not life, but the viewer. Oscar Wilde

Art does not depict the visible, but makes it visible. Paul Klee

To be truly kind, a person must have a vivid imagination, he must be able to imagine himself in the place of another. Imagination is the best tool for moral improvement. Percy Shelley

The student copies not out of imitation, but out of a desire to join the mystery of the Image. Petr Miturich

Inspiration is the kind of guest who does not like to visit the lazy. Pyotr Tchaikovsky

The creations of the sane will be eclipsed by the creations of the violent. Plato

Even the most familiar object to the eye changes completely when we try to draw it: we notice that we did not know it, that, in essence, we have never seen it. Paul Valéry

Painting allows you to see things as they once were, when they were looked at with love. Paul Valéry

There are two things in an artist: the eye and the brain, and they must help each other, one must work to develop them: the eye - with his vision of nature, the brain - with the logic of organized impressions that provide means of expression. Paul Cezanne

Art is a corner of nature, visible through a certain temperament. Paul Cezanne

You can’t separate pattern and color; As you write and draw, the more harmonious the color becomes, the more specific the drawing becomes. When color is given in its richness of colors, then form appears in its fullness.

Contrasts and tonal relationships are the secret of the drawing and the model. Paul Cezanne

There is no art without exercise, and no exercise without art. Protagoras

Without enthusiasm, nothing real is created in art. Robert Schumann

To send light into the depths of the human heart is the purpose of the artist. Robert Schumann

The highest purpose that art can serve is the ability to make people understand life more deeply and love it more. Rockwell Kent

Woe to the artist who seeks to show his talent rather than his painting. Romain Rolland

Art deserves honor and love only if it is truly human and appeals to all people, and not just to a handful of pedants. Romain Rolland

The artist thinks with drawing. Salvador Dali

The arts are useful only if they develop the mind and do not distract it. Seneca Lucius Annaeus (the Younger)

In some inspirations, the muses wash their feet. Stanislav Jerzy Lec

There are no new directions in art, there is only one thing - from person to person. Stanislav Jerzy Lec

Our imagination moves not from pleasure to pleasure, but from hope to hope. Samuel Johnson

It is not colors that make figures beautiful, but good drawing. Titian Vecellio

Inspiration gives the image, but does not dress it. Federico Garcia Lorca

Imagination is synonymous with the ability to discover. Federico Garcia Lorca

Without imagination there is no art, just as there is no science. Franz Liszt

In all forms of art, you yourself need to experience the sensations that you want to evoke in others. Frederic de Stendhal

I have never separated the artist from the thinker, just as I cannot separate the artistic form from artistic thought. Frederic de Stendhal

Architecture is frozen music. Friedrich Schelling

The painting of those who learn from me is alive, and those who imitate me are lifeless, dead. Qi Bai-Shi

If we take a look at the environment around us, be it a landscape or an interior, we will notice that between the things that appear to our gaze, there is a peculiar connection created by the atmosphere enveloping them and the various reflections of light, which, so to speak, involve each object in some common harmony. Eugene Delacroix

Painting is a quiet art, and this, in my opinion, is its considerable merit. Eugene Delacroix

Laziness, of course, is the greatest obstacle to the development of our abilities. Eugene Delacroix

The greatest triumph of an artist is if he makes those who are capable of it think and feel. Eugene Delacroix

The most stubborn realist is still forced, when conveying nature, to resort to certain conventions of composition or manner. If we talk about composition, then he cannot simply take a single piece or even several pieces and make a picture out of it. It is necessary to put an idea into it in order to present the viewer with something more than a random connection of unrelated parts, without this there would be no art. Eugene Delacroix

Talent is nothing more than the gift of generalizing and choosing. Eugene Delacroix

The ability to convey the whole is the main sign of a true artist. Eugene Delacroix

The habit of drawing accurately what we see gives a corresponding ability to accurately draw what we conceive... Joshua Reynolds

Introduction 3

1.The concept of art 4

2. Types of art 5

3. Qualitative characteristics of the arts 6

4. Principles of classification of arts 12

5. Interaction of arts 16

Conclusion 17

References 18

Introduction

Art is one of the forms of social consciousness, an integral part of the spiritual culture of humanity, a specific kind of practical-spiritual exploration of the world. In this regard, art includes a group of varieties of human activity - painting, music, theater, fiction, etc., united because they are specific - artistic and figurative forms of reproducing reality.

Human artistic and creative activity unfolds in diverse forms, which are called types of art, its types and genres. Each type of art is directly characterized by the method of material existence of its works and the type of figurative signs used. Thus, art, taken as a whole, is a historically established system of various specific methods of artistic exploration of the world, each of which has features that are common to all and individually unique.

The purpose of this test is to study all issues related to the arts.

To achieve the goal, it is necessary to solve the following tasks:

reveal the concept of art

consider the concept of art form

get acquainted with the characteristics of art forms

study the principles of classification of art forms

consider the interaction of arts

Art concept

Art is one of the most important spheres of culture, and unlike other spheres of activity (occupation, profession, position, etc.) it is universally significant, without it it is impossible to imagine people’s lives. The beginnings of artistic activity are noted in primitive society, long before the advent of science and philosophy. And, despite the antiquity of art, its irreplaceable role in human life, the long history of aesthetics, the problem of the essence and specificity of art still remains largely unresolved. What is the secret of art and why is it difficult to give a strictly scientific definition of it? The point, first of all, is that art does not lend itself to logical formalization; attempts to identify its abstract essence always ended in either approximation or failure. 1

We can distinguish three different meanings of this word, closely related to each other, but differing in scope and content.

In its broadest sense, the concept of “art” ( and this , apparently its most ancient use) means any skill , a skillfully, technically performed activity, the result of which is artificial in comparison with the natural. It is this meaning that follows from the ancient Greek word “techne” - art, skill.

The second, narrower meaning of the word “art” is creativity according to the laws of beauty . Such creativity refers to a wide range of activities: the creation of useful things, machines, this should also include the design and organization of public and personal life, the culture of everyday behavior, communication between people, etc. Nowadays, creativity functions successfully according to the laws of beauty in various areas of design .

A special kind social activities is artistic creativity itself , the products of which are special spiritual aesthetic values- this is the third and narrowest meaning of the word “art”. This will be the subject of further consideration.

Art has existed much longer than human civilization, perhaps as long as Homo sapiens has existed. But it is unlikely that our ancient ancestors, depicting something on the walls of caves, thought that someday very strange forms of art expression would exist.

10. Anamorphosis

Anamorphosis is a way of rendering images that are generally only perceived at a certain distance or from a certain angle. In some cases, the inscription can only be read in mirror image. The first attempts at using anamorphoses were made by Leonardo da Vinci in the 15th century. Several attempts date back to the Renaissance, including Hans Holbein the Younger's The Ambassadors and Andrea Pozzo's stunning frescoes on the vault of the Church of St. Ignatius in Rome.

Over the centuries, techniques have evolved from 3D on paper to street art that imitates holes or splits in the ground. The most successful technique was the use of anamorphosis in printing. A striking example is the successful attempt of students Joseph Egan and Hunter Thompson to decorate the walls in the college corridor with distorted texts that can only be read while standing on the right side. Chicago designer Thomas Quinn inspired students with his works, and they tried to implement them.

9. Photorealism

In the early 1960s, photorealists sought to create images that looked like real photographs. A camera is capable of capturing even the tiniest details, and a photorealist artist is able to create “an image of an image of life.” This movement, which also includes sculpture, is known as “super-realism” or “hyperrealism.” It focused on energy Everyday life, to convey it as accurately as possible.

Photorealists such as Richard Eastes, Audrey Flack, Robert Bechtle, Chuck Close and sculptor Duane Hanson created works so realistic that the viewer began to think that real objects could be fakes. Critics are not interested in this movement, as they consider it a sphere of technology, not art.

8. Art on a dirty car

It is unlikely that the inscription, for example, “Wash me” on the body of a dirty car can be considered great art. But 52-year-old American graphic artist Scott Wade has become famous for his amazing drawings on dusty car windows. He created his cartoons simply with his finger or a stick. Today, an artist uses paint and a brush to create more complex plots.

Wade's works are included in exhibitions, and advertising companies use his services. Since the author works with glass surfaces, which require several layers of dirt, he uses oil and a hair dryer to ensure strength. Soon no one will wash cars.

7. The use of human waste products in art

Many artists use fluids produced by the human body to create their works. For example, Australian artist Hermann Nitsch uses animal urine and blood. The subjects of his works, inspired by the events he experienced in childhood related to the Second World War, cause a lot of controversy and litigation.

Brazilian artist Vinicius Quesada is known for his bloody series called “Blood Piss Blues.” The artist uses only his own blood, refusing donor and animal blood. His work is heavily saturated with yellows, reds and greens to create a gritty, surreal atmosphere. In one of the most famous works, “Mr. Monkey” features a monkey wearing glasses made from a Nintendo gaming console and smoking a cigar.

6. Paintings painted with different parts of the body

Artists use very unusual materials to paint pictures, but they don’t stop there and move on to the technique of painting pictures with different parts of the body. 65-year-old Australian artist Tim Patcha “Pricasso”, who painted pictures with his manhood, but the most interesting thing is that the artist’s popularity has been growing recently.

No less outrageous artist Kira Ain Warszegi used her breasts as a brush when painting portraits. This method has been criticized. However, she is on high level can draw in the traditional way. Ani K painted with his tongue, and Stephen Mermer, a school teacher, painted with his buttocks, for which he was fired from school.

5. Reverse 3D image

While anamorphosis specialists are trying to achieve the perception of two-dimensional images as three-dimensional, a reverse trend has appeared when they want to present a 3D image as two-dimensional. The artist Alexa Meade has become especially famous in this area. To make the objects in the painting look lifeless, the artist uses acrylic paints. She has been working on this technique since 2008. The first works were presented to the public already in 2009. Mostly Mead’s paintings depict a man sitting on a chair near an unpainted wall. It took several hours to create the painting.

Another well-known specialist in this field is Cynthia Greig, an artist and photographer who lives in Detroit. In her paintings, she depicts ordinary everyday objects, covering them with white paint and charcoal to create the illusion of flatness.

Shadow, a natural phenomenon, and it is difficult to say when people decided to use it to create art objects, but modern specialists have achieved a lot in this area. They arranged objects in such a way that the shadow created images of people, different places and words. Famous professionals include Kumi Yamashita and Fred Eerdecens. Shadows are often associated with something sinister and many artists, including Tim Noble and Sue Webster, use them to create the illusion of fear in their work. Among their works, it is worth noting the installation “Dirty White Trash”, in which they used a pile of garbage to create images of a smoker and a drinker in the shadows. In another installation, the shadow forms the image of a raven, which “dines” with heads mounted on stakes. Rashad Alakbarov uses bright, colored glass and creates absolutely dark shadow images on empty walls.

The reverse graffiti technique is completely opposite to the technique of painting on dirt on cars - in this case, the dirt must be removed while simultaneously creating an image. Using washing machines, artists wash away the residue from car exhaust from the walls, creating beautiful images or patterns. The founder of this trend is considered to be Paul Curtis “Moose”. A similar idea came to his mind when he was working as a dishwasher in a restaurant and saw the walls stained with cigarette smoke.

Ben Logue is a British artist who advocates a less technological approach to reverse graffiti than Curtis. The temporary images created by Long simply with his finger on the car window are quite durable and can last up to 6 months unless they are washed away by rain or an ill-wisher interferes. Surprisingly, the attitude towards the new type of graffiti is different. Several times the police detained Paul Curtis for “writing with a stick in the sand,” as the artist himself says.

2. Body art illusions

Today you won’t surprise anyone with drawings on the body, and in the past too, since the Mayans, Egyptians, etc. were the first in this art. Today it is experiencing a new round of development. The illusion of body art consists of a three-dimensional 3D image that looks quite realistic - from people painted like animals to realistic holes on the arms.
Hikaru Cho, a famous Japanese body art artist, specializes in cartoon subjects. Artists Johannes Stötter and Trin Merry specialize in the art of camouflage.

In 1935, the method migrated into the realm of art thanks to the artist Man Ray, who filmed his movements surrounded by lights with a camera. At first no one gave special significance swirls of light in photographs, but in 2009 it was revealed that this mirror reflection artist's signature. Maine's followers, the Gyong Mil artists Henri Matisse, Barbara Morgan, Jack Delano and even Pablo Picasso, at one time tried their hand at light graphics. Contemporary artists Michael Bosanko, Trevor Williams and Jana Leonardo also became interested in something that is closely intertwined with science.

1. Problem-probable dynamics, or opportunity.

However, one should not be carried away by only one becoming and only one action, which distinguishes an object of art from an object of science. We must always remember that in the field of art we are dealing not simply with action as an organic structure of becoming, but that becoming itself arose here in Aristotle as a result of the opposition of categorical reasoning (as well as logical necessity) precisely to problematic-probable possibility. Only by taking this possibility in the field of pure reason in the aspect of an organically inherent becoming and integral possibility, do we for the first time obtain a more or less complete understanding of the object of art.

Aristotle writes: “...The task of the poet is to talk not about what happened (ta genomena), but about what could happen, about what is possible according to probability or necessity” (Poet. 9, 1451 a 36 - b 1). So Aristotle broke once and for all with the object of art, as with factual reality. Naked facts, taken by themselves, do not interest the poet. He is interested in what is depicted, which is perceived not in itself, but as a source of other possible objects and ideas, or, as we would say, the subject of an artistic depiction is always symbolic or rather, expressively symbolic, always pointing to something else and calling to something else.

Aristotle's thoughts in this regard sound quite categorical:

“The historian 158 and the poet differ not in that one speaks in verse, and the other in prose. After all, the works of Herodotus could be translated into verse, and yet it would be the same story in meters as without meters. The difference is, that one tells about what happened (ta genomena), the other about what could have happened" (b 1-6).

2. Generalized nature of this possibility.

Finally, according to Aristotle, it is impossible to reduce in any way the artistic subject, which he declared to be only one possibility, both in terms of generality and in terms of the persuasiveness of the image. One would think that if the artist is ordered to depict not what is, but what can be, the artist would have a free hand in relation to the image of anything. No, this cannot possibly be, because we will not forget that the entire sphere of possibility is taken from the same theoretical reason, which always operates only with general categories.

"Poetry contains a more philosophical and serious element than history: it represents more general, and history is private. The general idea consists in depicting what a person possessing certain qualities has to say or do, according to probability or necessity. Poetry strives for this, giving acting persons names. And the particular, for example, what Alcibiades did, or what happened to him" (b 6-12).

3. The figurative nature of art.

It is important to note here that the possible, which art treats, is always characterized by some names. Now we would say differently. After all, until now, in principle, we have been talking only about pure, or theoretical, reason, which acts with the help of general categories. But a work of art is not simply a system of logical categories. It is always an image of certain persons with their names and certain actions, that happen to these individuals. Aristotle has already spoken about action, but he has not yet spoken about the heroes of a work of art. And only now he says that a work of art always operates with one or another names, that is, with these or other heroes bearing certain names. If in a comedy what is important is primarily the plot itself, and the names can be anything, and if in iambiography there are names, but no actions are depicted (b 12-15), then the situation is completely different in tragedy, where a specific plot is given - myth, that is, a certain set of actions, and “names” are given, that is, heroes bearing certain names that belong to them, and since mythology refers to the past, the question of its actual reality is no longer raised. Since something was, it could have been; and therefore tragedy fully satisfies the artistic principle of possibility, not to mention its persuasiveness that follows from this, and, consequently, its unique realism, which not only does not contradict the principle of possibility, but precisely realizes it most clearly.

Here is what we read from Aristotle on this matter:

"In tragedy, names taken from the past are adhered to. The reason for this is that the possible [that is, in this case, the incident] inspires confidence. We do not believe in the possibility of what has not yet happened; and what has happened is obvious , perhaps, since it would not have happened if it were not possible. However, in some tragedies only one or two occur. famous names, while others are fictitious, as, for example, in Agathon’s “Flower”. In this work both events and names are equally fictitious, but still it gives pleasure" (b 15-23).

What is important here is not only the breadth of Aristotle’s artistic horizon, but what is also important here is that among these discussions about integrity, community, and peculiar realism mythological image he does not forget to say also about the pleasure delivered by tragedy (eyphraifiein, or, more accurately translated, “joy”).

In conclusion, Aristotle once again emphasizes lack of factuality of a work of art, namely its madeness, fabrication, creative design, its masterly imagery, which, according to Aristotle, is always carried out through its effective creation:

“One should not necessarily set one’s task to adhere to the myths preserved by tradition, in the area of ​​​​which the tragedy revolves. And it is ridiculous to strive for this, since even what is known is known to a few, and yet gives pleasure to everyone. From this it is clear that the poet should be more of a creator of plots, than meters, since he is a creator insofar as he reproduces, and he reproduces actions, even if he has to depict actual events, he is still a creator, since nothing prevents some actual events from having the character of probability and possibility. he is their creator" (b 23-33).

4. Expression as the aesthetic sharpness of an artistic object.

Now, finally, we come to the Aristotelian understanding of art as a sphere of expression. After all, here it becomes clear by itself that this kind of theory of an artistic object, designed not just for content, but for the masterly design of any content, which also delivers specific pleasure, is precisely a consistent aesthetics expressions, when what is important is not what objectively exists, and not what is invented by subjective arbitrariness, but the virtuosity of the expression itself and the specific pleasure associated with it.

A) In the last of the previous quotes, we were convinced that Aristotle, although he is very fond of well-known and understandable mythological plots, nevertheless believes that the artistry of a work does not depend at all on these well-known and understandable plots. Plots may be completely unknown to the public and completely incomprehensible in their novelty, and yet the public can receive aesthetic pleasure from these plots. And why? Because for Aristotle, what is important in a work of art is not “what,” but “how,” or rather, the complete fusion of both into one expressive and thereby convincing formal-structural imagery. Below we will see how Aristotle defines the very origin of art as the natural tendency of man to “imitate,” that is, to creatively recreate everything around him, and to receive pleasure from this kind of imitation.

b) Now we will cite a very interesting argument by Aristotle in “Politics”:

“Children should be taught generally useful subjects not only in the interest of the benefits they receive from it - such as learning to read and write, but also because, thanks to this training, it is possible to inform them whole line other information. This is the case with drawing: and it is studied not in order not to fall into error in one’s own actions or to avoid being deceived when buying or selling household utensils, but drawing is studied because it develops the eye in determining physical beauty. In general, to seek everywhere only one benefit is less befitting for people of high spiritual qualities and freeborn" (VIII 3, 1388 a 37 - 1388 b 4).

In other words, an artistic object, according to Aristotle, is equally vitally neutral and vitally useful. Art is a very specific sphere where neither “yes” nor “no” is said, and yet it is always a sphere of possible affirmations and negations. This is the sphere of expressive becoming-actions. Music is especially distinguished by this (Polit. VIII 4-5), as we will see below when considering the essence of music and musical education.

V) That the beautiful is generally higher than the merely physical is evident from Aristotle's reasoning (Ethic. Nic. III 12) that for a fist fighter it is pleasant to receive a wreath and honors, but it is painful to receive blows during a fight, and courageous actions are performed for the sake of a beautiful goal and for the sake of avoiding shame, although wounds and death are by no means something beautiful or pleasant. Aristotle wants to say here that beauty is effective, but not in a purely physical sense.

“In works of art, perfection (to ey) lies in themselves, and it is enough that these works arise in accordance with the rules that lie in art itself” (II 3, 1105 a 27-28).

“Therefore, art cannot be criticized for the fact that it depicts incorrect, impossible or incredible objects. Of course, it would be better if everything depicted in art were objectively correct, and objectively possible, and objectively probable, but if, for example, a horse with two right legs put forward, then the one who criticizes the painter for this does not criticize the art of painting, but only the inconsistency of its reality. The subject of artistic depiction may even be objectively completely impossible. However, for poetry, the impossible, but probable, is preferable to the possible, but. incredible" (Poet. 25, 1460 b 6 – 1461 a 9; 11-12).

Aristotle presupposes the masterly structure of a work of art when he values ​​in tragedy the very connection of events, that is, what he calls “myth,” and not the events themselves. So, for example, tragedy, according to Aristotle, is possible even without depicting characters, but it is in no way possible without a finished and clearly expressed connection of events. This applies to all other arts.

“Without action, tragedy is impossible, but without character it is possible” (6, 1450 a 24-25). “The same is noticed among artists, for example, if you compare Zeuxis with Polygnotus: Polygnotus is a good, characteristic painter, but Zeuxis’s writing has nothing characteristic” (a 27-29). “If someone harmoniously combines characteristic sayings and beautiful words and thoughts, he will not fulfill the task of tragedy, but a tragedy will achieve it much more, although it uses all this to a lesser extent, but has a plot and the proper composition of events” (a 29-33).

Consequently, the artistic meaning of a tragedy lies only in the composition of incidents, that is, in its very structure, and not in the incidents as such. The same thing happens in painting.

"If anyone smears the most best paints in disorder, he cannot give even such pleasure as someone sketching a drawing with chalk" (a 33-36).

5. Philosophical justification for the structural self-sufficiency of art.

Unfortunately, at the moment, due to lack of space, we cannot fully give the philosophical justification for the structural nature of artistry that Aristotle actually has. The first treatise, which follows the Categories in the Organon, is called On Interpretation. The fact is that in addition to being taken in itself, for a person there is always one or another interpretation of it, one or another interpretation of it. This interpretation also applies, of course, to the entire cosmos taken as a whole. But such an interpretation of the cosmos, as we well know, is for Aristotle the cosmic Mind. In the aforementioned treatise, Aristotle protects the rights of human interpretation of existence in the face of existence itself. Interpretation has a specific nature: not everything that is true in being itself is true in thinking; and the very contradiction that Aristotle prohibits for being itself is quite possible in thinking. Thus, “to be” and “not to be” is an unacceptable contradiction. However, in thinking, in addition to the real and categorical modality, there are also other modalities in relation to which it makes no sense to talk about truth or falsehood. This is the entire sphere of possible existence. It cannot be said about it that it is true, since it does not yet exist, nor that it is false, since at the stage of possibility it is not yet categorically affirmed. And what is especially striking in this treatise is that Aristotle refers us precisely to poetics and rhetoric to consider this kind of being, in relation to which nothing is affirmed or denied.

Aristotle writes:

“Not every speech contains [a judgment], but only that which contains the truth or falsity of something, so, for example, “wish” (eyche) is speech, but not true or false. The remaining types of speech are released here, for the study of them is more appropriate to rhetoric or poetics; only judgment (logos apophanticos) belongs to the present consideration" (De interpret. 4, 17 a 2-7).

Thus, the impossibility of applying positive or negative judgments to art was proven by Aristotle in one of the most important treatises of his theoretical philosophy. Artistic existence both is and is not. It is only a possibility, only problematic, only given and charged, but in no way a system of judgments about being, positive or negative. It is only expressiveness itself, and nothing else.

All the above judgments from Aristotle and about Aristotle may, in the eyes of others, reduce Aristotle’s entire teaching on art to empty and meaningless formalism. This would mean not understanding Aristotle's aesthetics at all. The point is that all this artistic “possibility”, “neutrality” and generally specific modality represent (and we have talked about this many times) not form, as opposed to content, just as, it is true, not content without form, but that namely, in which form and content are identified, in which they do not differ from each other, and in which their being and their non-being merge to the point of complete indistinguishability. How can one then say that Aristotle is interested in art only in its forms and only in its structures?

The entire 17th chapter of “Poetics” is devoted specifically to issues of concrete design of art.

“Tragedy,” says Aristotle, “should be written in such a way that it is clearest, most convincing, and so that the scenes that make it up are most understandable. The most exciting poets are those who experience feelings of the same nature. anger is the one who is truly angry. As a result, poetry is the destiny of either a person richly gifted by nature, or a person prone to fury.

Where is Aristotle’s formalism when depicting the very essence of a work of art?

Enough has been said above about such “formal” categories of Aristotelian aesthetics as “beginning”, “middle” and “end”. We have already tried to prove that here Aristotle does not have formalism, but only a plastic, sculptural way of perceiving the world. Let's now see what Aristotle says about the concept of period and the aesthetic pleasure that we get precisely thanks to its structural orderliness:

"I call a period a phrase that itself has a beginning, a middle and an end and the dimensions of which are easy to see. This style is pleasant and understandable; it is pleasant because it is the opposite of unfinished speech, and the listener always seems to be grasping something and that something has ended for him; and not having a presentiment of anything and not coming to anything is unpleasant. Such speech is understandable because it is easy to remember, and this comes from the fact that periodic speech has a number, and the number is the easiest to remember. That’s why everyone remembers poetry better than prose, since poetry has a number by which they are measured” (Rhet. III 9, 1409 a 35 – 1409 b 8).

Let us ask here, where is Aristotle’s aesthetic formalism when evaluating works of art?

Aristotle, as a moralist, stands against all extremes and everywhere preaches the middle, moderation. But in relation to objects of art, he knows no middle ground and no moderation.

“Moderation must be observed in lower, bodily pleasures, but not in pleasures from the colors of pictures, from listening to musical works and from subtle, elegant odors." "We do not call those who enjoy sight, for example, colors, or shapes, or pictures, either moderate or intemperate, although perhaps for such people there is normal pleasure, both excessive and insufficient. The same should be said about the pleasures of the ear: no one calls people intemperate who enjoy too much melodies and theatrical performances, and no one calls those who enjoy these things in moderation moderate. Nor does he call those who like scents, those who enjoy the fragrance of fruits, roses or smokable herbs” (Ethic. Nic. III 13, 1118 a 1-9).

Such an attitude towards art cannot be called formalistic when it preaches the possibility of one who knows no measure of immersion in colors and forms, in painting, in music and even in incense. We find the same limitlessness of aesthetic pleasure in art in another treatise, and even in in even more detail (Ethic. Eud. III 2, 1230 b 31).

7. The danger of modernizing Aristotle's teaching on art.

Reviewing all previous materials on art by Aristotle and trying to analyze them from the point of view of artistic specificity, we actually come across a number of surprises that are usually absent from the presentation of Aristotle’s aesthetics. The very difference between dynamic being and pure being can cause bewilderment for many. After all, the result is neither more nor less than that artistic existence neither positive nor negative, that it says neither “yes” nor “no,” that it is existentially neutral and that it ultimately has its roots in the subjective realm of the creative artist. It is very easy to get confused and put Aristotle’s aesthetics on the same plane with those modern nihilistic idealistic forms of thought that found vivid expression in the epistemology of Mach and Avenarius. Apparently, the author who has done so much to illuminate Aristotelian aesthetics and to consider it in the context of modern European and American theories, V. Tatarkevich 159, is leaning towards this incorrect position. He noticed a lot in Aristotle that goes far beyond the traditional understanding and presentation of Aristotle; he cites many such texts from Aristotle, which also play an important role in our country (but only in our country there are many times more of these texts). The main thesis of V. Tatarkevich comes down precisely to the fact that Aristotle allegedly taught about the neutral existential sphere of art, in which, according to this author, he differs sharply from all ancient philosophy (excluding Cicero) and in which he is certainly close to our modernity. We also gave the above-developed doctrine of the dynamic-energetic nature of the mind in the philosophy of Aristotle and also cited texts about the primacy of subjectivity over objective being in Aristotle’s theory of art. However, this whole side of Aristotle’s aesthetics should not in the least obscure from us everything else that we find in it.

If Aristotle really preached this kind of theory, then V. Tatarkevich would be absolutely right that Aristotle is not at all an ancient, but a contemporary art theorist. But a close study of Aristotle indicates that this “Machian” element must be able to accurately and unconditionally be combined with the general ancient ontology of Aristotle, and its specificity of a work of art must be combined with the general ancient teachings about art, nature and being. The mind that Aristotle teaches about not only does not contradict this dynamic-energy concept, but, as we have proven many times, here Aristotle had unconditional unity and none of his ontology suffered from this at all. To actually characterize the state of affairs, we will not now go into theoretical discussions, to which we have already devoted many pages, but will touch only on two narrower questions, where it is easiest to observe Aristotle’s general ancient inclination towards a passive understanding of the human subject, despite that, according to Aristotle, it is in the human subject that what should be called art is rooted.

A) If we asked ourselves the question of how such a first-class philosopher of antiquity, and, moreover, an exceptional encyclopedist, felt the entire inner element of art, then we would be amazed at the lethargy and passivity of the corresponding attitudes. In Aristotle, here, too, as elsewhere in antiquity, the term enthoysiasmos, “enthusiasm” appears, which, however, is not enthusiasm in our sense, but rather some passionate excitement, affective inspiration. Aristotle defines this: “Enthusiasm is an affect of an ethical order in our psyche” (Polit. VIII 5, 1340 a 11-12), and ethos, “ethos” here should be understood not in the sense of ethics, but in the same way as the French and English in new and modern times understand the term “moral”, that is, in a broad psychological sense. This enthusiasm, which the philosopher talks a lot about in relation to music, is in fact regarded by him very moderately and soberly. Enthusiasm and ecstasy are, of course, useful. About one insignificant poet, Maracus of Syracuse, Aristotle says (Probl. XXX 1, 954 a 38-39) that he “would have been a better poet if he had been in ecstasy.” But Aristotle rejects all extreme forms of enthusiasm, considering it a disease. Such ecstasies as those of Hercules, who killed his children, or Ajax, who killed sheep instead of Atrides, have for Aristotle all the signs of illness. In the same treatise (a 36-38) it is given purely physiological explanation of ecstatic states. For example, the Sibyls and Bacids act on the basis of painful predispositions from nature. Black bile, unhealthy diet, etc. are the reasons for this “enthusiasm.” Aristotle classifies many philosophers as such “melancholics,” including Empedocles, Socrates and Plato (953a 27-32). Instead of these unnatural states, Aristotle gives very sound advice to writers, like the one we find, for example, in the 17th chapter of the Poetics:

“When composing myths and processing their language, it is necessary to imagine events as closely as possible before your eyes. Under this condition, the poet, seeing them completely clearly and, as it were, being present at their development, can find the appropriate one and best notice the contradictions” (1455 a 22-26 ).

This is very calm and common sense advice, putting questions about inspiration on a very realistic and psychological basis.

b) The question is just as realistic about fantasies. We find traits of passivity in this sense in Plato as well. This is all the more typical for Aristotle, who is trying to give a sober psychological analysis. Under the influence of ecstasy, people often mistake the images of their own imagination for reality: “They say that the images of the imagination (phantasmata) really existed and that they remember them” (De memor. 1, 450 b 10-11). In general, fantasy is much weaker than real sensory sensations. In Rhet. I 11, 1370 a 28-29 Aristotle directly states: “Imagination (phantasia) is a kind of weak sensation.” However, this passivity should not obscure another, very important side.

V) The fact is that Aristotle, objecting to Plato on the issue of ideas, as we already well know, in fact does not deny the existence of ideas, but only places them immanent in things, in reality. This immanentism, on the other hand, cannot be understood crudely. This only leads to the fact that the idea, taken together with the thing, receives more complex semantic picture, becomes expressive form, without ceasing to be pure meaning. Here is the solution to Aristotle's “whatness,” or “form,” “eidos.” We see the same symbolism in Aristotle and in his psychology. His soul is thought of as a pure form of the body, but it exists "not without a body"(De an. II 2, 414 a 5-22), being, therefore, the semantic expressiveness of the body (415 b 7-27). Sensory perception has pure eidos, but not without matter(417 b 28 – 418 a 6). The same teaching, finally, is relative thinking. According to Aristotle, thinking is in the same conditions as sensory perception, that is, it is a passive state under the influence of the thinkable (III 4, 429 a 13-15). But the thought itself is precisely such that it does not cause affection, and therefore the mind itself, strictly speaking, remains outside of suffering. It contains eidos, and is the potency of everything imaginable. As a thinker of everything, he does not contain any admixture. He is only the potency of a completed thought. And it has absolutely nothing to do with the body, since otherwise it would be warm or cold and would have some kind of organ. He - place of eidos, and above all potential. Developed thinking already creates an entelechy of thought; here - entelechiaceae eidos (429 a 15 – b 10). But the mind is not only pure and active. He is also suffering because he is not always thinking. Since the mind is in itself, thinks itself, being independent of anything sensory, it is a thought about a thought, and, therefore, its own expression finds in self-awareness(in this case, thinking and the thinkable are identical, 430 a 3-5). Since he thinks differently, being, as it were, affected by this other, he finds his expression in imaginative thinking, or better yet, in an intuitively realized way through a special mental representative of thinking.

Here Aristotle repeats the same involuntary antinomy, which we can state in other problems: the soul is not a body, but not without a body; sensation is not movement, but not without movement. In relation to the mind, Aristotle directly says: “The soul never thinks without an image” (aney phantasmatos) (III 7, 431 a 16-17), and images introduce that very “change” into thoughts, or, according to our interpretation, “expression ", what the corresponding light environment contributes to the color in general.

“The thinking principle thinks of eidos in images” (413 b 2).

“Since, admittedly, there is not a single thing that exists separately from (its) sensually perceived quantities, then the conceivable is given in tangible eidos, at the same time - both the so-called abstract objects and those that are associated with states and affections of sensed objects. Hence, the one who does not perceive anything sensually can neither recognize nor understand anything, and when he mentally contemplates, it is necessary for him to simultaneously contemplate a certain image of the imagination (phantasma), since this image exists like images of perception (hösper aithömata), with the exception of [the latter's] matter. Just as imagination differs from affirmation and negation, so truth or falsehood is one or another combination of thoughts. But how do primary thoughts differ from sensory images? Of course, they are not [simply] other images, but they are. - not without images" (III 8, 432 a 3-14).

The mind is “pure” (III 5, 430 a 18, etc.), “eidos of eidos” (III 8, 432 a 1), is not something moving (III 9, 432 b 26-27) and is not even a soul at all (II 2, 414 a 4-14), and on the other hand, energetically it is impossible without sensuality. Here is a complete repetition of the problems that we state in general view in Metaphysics: eidos are not facts, but they have real significance only in things where they receive their final expression. And just as there energy is the semantic expressiveness symbolically given in things, so here thinking is symbolically given in sensory images, the same semantic expressiveness.

G) It’s easy to see how thin the print is passivity lies on this whole symbolic descriptive aesthetics of Aristotle. Fantasy for him is a very balanced, calmed connection between pure thought and sensual imagery, which transforms pure thought into pictorial figurativeness and expressiveness, and transforms sensual imagery from blind and deaf into transparently symbolic and artistic. This connection, of course, is elementary: every aesthetics postulates it on the very first page of its study of the psychology of art. Socrates demanded the same, as we know, from artists; Plato consciously used "sensibility" in constructing his "probable myth" in the Timaeus; Plotinus will also remember his pure Mind by bodily signs, etc. etc. But all ancient aesthetics understands this fundamental connection internally passive, contemplative, "classical"; Aristotle, in contrast to the dialectical constructions of Platonism in the field of self-consciousness (the mature form is in Plot. V 3) and in contrast to Stoic-Epicurean naturalism (“outflows”, “atoms of the soul”, etc.), gives expressive and semantic the description of fantasy gives an expressive phenomenology of this general ancient passive-plastic consciousness of the artist.

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