Each period of human history has left something of its own - unique, unlike others. Europe was luckier in this regard - it experienced numerous changes in human consciousness, culture, and art. The decline of the ancient period marked the advent of the so-called “dark ages” - the Middle Ages. Let's admit, it was a difficult time - the church subjugated all aspects of the life of European citizens, culture and art were in deep decline.
Any dissent that contradicted the Holy Scriptures was strictly punished by the Inquisition - a court specially created to persecute heretics. However, any trouble sooner or later recedes - this is what happened with the Middle Ages. The darkness was replaced by light - the Renaissance, or the Renaissance. The Renaissance was a period of European cultural, artistic, political and economic "rebirth" after the Middle Ages. He contributed to the rediscovery of classical philosophy, literature and art.
Some of the greatest thinkers, authors, statesmen, scientists and artists in human history created in this era. Discoveries were made in science and geography, and the world was explored. This period, blessed for scientists, lasted almost three centuries from the 14th to the 17th centuries. Let's talk about it in more detail.
Renaissance
The Renaissance (from the French Re - again, again, naissance - birth) marked a completely new round in the history of Europe. It was preceded by medieval periods, when the cultural education of Europeans was in its infancy. With the fall of the Roman Empire in 476 and its division into two parts - Western (with its center in Rome) and Eastern (Byzantium), ancient values also fell into decay. From a historical point of view, everything is logical - the year 476 is considered the end date of the ancient period. But culturally, such a heritage should not just disappear. Byzantium followed its own path of development - the capital Constantinople soon became one of the most beautiful cities in the world, where unique architectural masterpieces were created, artists, poets, writers appeared, and huge libraries were created. In general, Byzantium valued its ancient heritage.
The western part of the former empire submitted to the young Catholic Church, which, fearing to lose influence over such a large territory, quickly banned both ancient history and culture and did not allow the development of a new one. This period became known as the Middle Ages, or Dark Times. Although, in fairness, we note that not everything was so bad - it was at this time that new states appeared on the world map, cities flourished, trade unions appeared, and the borders of Europe expanded. And most importantly, there is a surge in technology development. More objects were invented during the Middle Ages than during the previous millennium. But, of course, this was not enough.
The Renaissance itself is usually divided into four periods - Proto-Renaissance (2nd half of the 13th century - 15th century), Early Renaissance (entire 15th century), High Renaissance (end of the 15th century - first quarter of the 16th century) and Late Renaissance ( mid 16th century – end of 16th century). Of course, these dates are very arbitrary - after all, each European state had its own Renaissance according to its own calendar and time.
Emergence and development
Here it is necessary to note the following curious fact - the fatal fall in 1453 played a role in the emergence and development (to a greater extent in the development) of the Renaissance. Those who were lucky enough to escape the invasion of the Turks fled to Europe, but not empty-handed - people took with them many books, works of art, ancient sources and manuscripts, hitherto unknown to Europe. Italy is officially considered the birthplace of the Renaissance, but other countries also came under the influence of the Renaissance.
This period is distinguished by the emergence of new trends in philosophy and culture - for example, humanism. In the 14th century, the cultural movement of humanism began to gain momentum in Italy. Among its many principles, humanism promoted the idea that man was the center of his own universe, and that the mind had incredible power that could turn the world upside down. Humanism contributed to a surge of interest in ancient literature.
Philosophy, literature, architecture, painting
Among the philosophers there appeared such names as Nicholas of Cusa, Nicolo Machiavelli, Tomaso Campanella, Michel Montaigne, Erasmus of Rotterdam, Martin Luther and many others. The Renaissance gave them the opportunity to create their own works, according to the new spirit of the times. Studied more deeply natural phenomena, attempts have been made to explain them. And at the center of all this, of course, was man - the main creation of nature.
Literature is also undergoing changes - authors create works that glorify humanistic ideals, showing rich inner world person, his emotions. The founder of the literary Renaissance was the legendary Florentine Dante Alighieri, who created his most famous work “Comedy” (later called “The Divine Comedy”). In a rather free manner, he described hell and heaven, which the church did not like at all - only she should know this in order to influence the minds of people. Dante got off easy - he was only expelled from Florence, forbidden to return back. Or they could have been burned as a heretic.
Other authors of the Renaissance include Giovanni Boccaccio (“Decameron”), Francesco Petrarch (his lyrical sonnets became a symbol early Renaissance), (needs no introduction), Lope de Vega (Spanish playwright, his most famous work is “Dog in the Manger”), Cervantes (“Don Quixote”). Distinctive feature The literature of this period became works in national languages - before the Renaissance, everything was written in Latin.
And, of course, one cannot fail to mention a technical revolutionary thing - the printing press. In 1450, the first printing press was created in the workshop of printer Johannes Gutenberg, which made it possible to publish books in larger volumes and make them accessible to the masses, thereby increasing their literacy. What turned out to be fraught with danger for themselves - as everything more people learned to read, write, and interpret ideas, they began to scrutinize and criticize religion as they knew it.
Renaissance painting is known throughout the world. Let's name just a few names that everyone knows - Pietro della Francesco, Sandro Botticelli, Domenico Ghirlandaio, Rafael Santi, Michelandelo Bounarrotti, Titian, Pieter Bruegel, Albrecht Durer. A distinctive feature of the painting of this time is the appearance of a landscape in the background, giving the bodies realism and muscles (applies to both men and women). The ladies are depicted “in the body” (remember the famous expression “Titian’s girl” - a plump girl in the very juice, symbolizing life itself).
Changes and architectural style- Gothic is being replaced by a return to the Roman antique type of construction. Symmetry appears, arches, columns, and domes are erected again. In general, the architecture of this period gives rise to classicism and baroque. Among the legendary names are Filippo Brunelleschi, Michelangelo Bounarrotti, Andrea Palladio.
The Renaissance ended at the end of the 16th century, giving way to a new Time and its companion - the Enlightenment. Over the course of all three centuries, the church fought science as best it could, using everything it could, but it was never completely defeated - culture still continued to flourish, new minds appeared that challenged the power of the churchmen. And the Renaissance is still considered the crown of European medieval culture, leaving behind monuments that testify to those distant events.
A short guide to the ideas of the European Renaissance.
Renaissance
History and features
Over the course of two hundred years, Europe witnessed an astonishing revival of painting, sculpture and architecture, with Italy at its epicenter. The concept of the “Renaissance” appeared in the 19th century thanks to the works of the historian Michelet and art history professor Jacob Burckhardt.
Characteristic
The Italian Renaissance restored Western art according to classical principles Greek art, especially in the fields of sculpture and painting. From the beginning of the 14th century, in search of a new set artistic values and answer gothic style, Italian masters and thinkers began to be inspired by the ideas of ancient Greece and Rome, which was in perfect harmony with their desire to create a universal and noble form of art and express the mood of that time.
Humanism
First of all, the art of that time was determined by the philosophical concept of “humanism”, based on existing achievements (for example, democratic ones).
In the visual arts, humanism stands for:
- Creating a unique composition instead of stereotypical and symbolic images.
- Greater realism and attention to detail, which is reflected in the development of theories linear perspective. This approach explains both the veneration of classical sculptures and the fall out of fashion of Byzantine works.
- Emphasis on developing and promoting virtuous action. The leading art theorist of the time, Alberti (1404-1472), stated that “happiness cannot be achieved without good, just and righteous deeds.”
Causes
It is still unclear what caused this change in art. Although the dark ages for Europe are over and Christian church in the 12-13th century it experienced a rebirth; in the 14th century there were serious problems with harvests, a plague epidemic and a war between England and France. Therefore, the reason for the breakthrough in creativity was undoubtedly whole line factors and historical events.
Positive development trends were observed in Italy at that time. Venice and Genoa grew rich from trade with the East, and Florence became a center of jewelry, wool and silk production. Prosperity gradually comes to Northern Europe, as evidenced by the creation of the Hanseatic League.
The spread of new ideas was facilitated by the invention of printing, which, to some extent, reflected an impatience with slow progress after a thousand years of cultural and intellectual starvation, a desire for rebirth.
Weakness of the Church
The precarious position of the church gave additional impetus to development. This leads to a rise in humanistic views and encourages the clergy to decorate temples and churches and collaborate with architects and sculptors. The reaction to such a change, known as the Counter-Reformation, lasted until the end of the sixteenth century.
Development
The Renaissance also parallels the beginning of the great Western discoveries. Europeans explore new sea routes, explore continents and create new colonies. New research is happening in other areas related to science, nature and peace. Masters fine arts demonstrate their own desire for new methods and knowledge. According to the Italian artist, architect and historian Giorgio Vasari (1511-1574), not only respect for art and classical antiquity is growing, but also the desire to learn from nature and imitate it.
Epicenter
In addition to its status as the richest trading nation, Italy had a vast number of classical works and artifacts at its disposal. Examples of Roman architecture and sculpture, as well as ancient Greek works, were found in almost every city in the country. In addition, the fall of Constantinople, the capital of the Byzantine Empire, forced many Greek scholars to emigrate to Italy, along with their classical ideas and important texts. All these factors explain why this country became the center of the European Renaissance.
In Northern Europe, the Renaissance is characterized by advances in the representation of light, its propagation and reflection, as reflected in portraiture and still life. This is partly due to the fact that most artists Northern Renaissance used oil paints at the beginning of the 15th century, preferring them to tempera or fresco, which (for many reasons, including climate) were still preferred and popular in Italy.
Religious art of the time is dominated by the depiction of the apostles and members of the Holy Family, who are depicted as living people. Their poses and surroundings express real human emotions. Plots and stories from classical mythology are also popular, illustrating the ideas of humanism.
Titian.It is also worth noting that the status of the profession of artists and sculptors is moving to a new level, because now the creation of paintings and sculptures requires mental preparation and serious technology.
Galleries
The following Italian galleries have significant collections of Renaissance paintings or sculptures:
- Uffizi Gallery.
- Pitti Palace.
- Vatican Museums.
- Gallery Doria Pamphilj.
- Capodimonte Museum.
- Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum.
Conclusion
The main contribution of the Italian Renaissance to the history of art can be described as the promotion of classical ancient ideals, which resulted in the classical development of Western painting and sculpture. Although contemporary artists and explore new forms of art, for the West the main model remains greek antiquity and its interpretation in the form of the Renaissance.
Renaissance updated: September 16, 2017 by: Gleb
The epoch-making period in the history of world culture, which preceded the Modern Age and was given the name Renaissance, or Revival. The history of the era begins at the dawn of Italy. Several centuries can be characterized as the time of formation of a new, human and earthly picture of the world, which is essentially secular in nature. Progressive ideas found their embodiment in humanism.
Renaissance years and concept
It is quite difficult to set a specific time frame for this phenomenon in the history of world culture. This is explained by the fact that all European countries entered the Renaissance at different times. Some earlier, others later, due to the lag in socio-economic development. Approximate dates include the beginning of the 14th and the end of the 16th century. The years of the Renaissance are characterized by the manifestation of the secular nature of culture, its humanization, and the flourishing of interest in antiquity. By the way, the name of this period is connected with the latter. There is a revival of its introduction into the European world.
General characteristics of the Renaissance
This revolution in the development of human culture occurred as a result of changes in European society and relations in it. An important role is played by the fall of Byzantium, when its citizens fled en masse to Europe, bringing with them libraries and various ancient sources, previously unknown. The increase in the number of cities led to an increase in the influence of the simple classes of artisans, merchants, and bankers. Various centers of art and science began to actively appear, the activities of which the church no longer controlled.
The first years of the Renaissance are usually counted with its onset in Italy; it was in this country that this movement began. Its initial signs became noticeable in the 13th-14th centuries, but it took a strong position in the 15th century (20s), reaching its maximum flourishing towards its end. The Renaissance (or Renaissance) era is divided into four periods. Let's look at them in more detail.
Proto-Renaissance
This period dates back to approximately the second half of the 13th-14th century. It is worth noting that all dates refer to Italy. In fact, this period represents the preparatory stage of the Renaissance. It is conventionally divided into two stages: before and after the death (1137) of Giotto di Bondone (sculpture in the photo), a key figure in history Western art, architect and artist.
The last years of the Renaissance of this period are associated with the plague epidemic that struck Italy and the whole of Europe as a whole. The Proto-Renaissance is closely connected with the Middle Ages, Gothic, Romanesque, and Byzantine traditions. Giotto is considered to be the central figure, who outlined the main trends in painting and pointed out the path along which its development would follow.
Early Renaissance period
In time it took eighty years. Early years which are characterized in very two ways, occurred in 1420-1500. Art has not yet completely renounced medieval traditions, but is actively adding elements borrowed from classical antiquity. As if incrementally, year after year, under the influence of changing conditions of the social environment, there is a complete rejection by artists of the old and a transition to ancient art as the main concept.
High Renaissance period
This is the peak, the peak of the Renaissance. At this stage, the Renaissance (1500-1527) reached its apogee, and the center of influence of all Italian art moved to Rome from Florence. This happened in connection with the accession to the papal throne of Julius II, who had very progressive, bold views, was an enterprising and ambitious man. He attracted the best artists and sculptors from all over Italy to the eternal city. It was at this time that the real titans of the Renaissance created their masterpieces, which the whole world admires to this day.
Late Renaissance
Covers the time period from 1530 to 1590-1620. The development of culture and art in this period is so heterogeneous and diverse that even historians do not reduce it to one denominator. According to British scholars, the Renaissance finally died out at the moment when the fall of Rome occurred, namely in 1527. plunged into the Counter-Reformation, which put an end to all free-thinking, including the resurrection of ancient traditions.
The crisis of ideas and contradictions in worldview eventually resulted in mannerism in Florence. A style that is characterized by disharmony and artificiality, a loss of balance between the spiritual and physical components, characteristic of the Renaissance era. For example, Venice had its own development path; masters such as Titian and Palladio worked there until the end of the 1570s. Their work remained aloof from the crisis phenomena characteristic of the art of Rome and Florence. The photo shows Titian's painting "Isabella of Portugal".
Great Masters of the Renaissance
Three great Italians are the titans of the Renaissance, its worthy crown:
All their works are the best, selected pearls of world art that the Renaissance collected. Years go by, centuries change, but the creations of great masters are timeless.
The term “Renaissance” usually refers to the period that began in the 14th century and ended around the 17th century - something like a bridge between the European culture of the Middle Ages and the New Age. Although the term is taken for granted today, it was not the self-name of the era. The historian and artist Giorgio Vasari in “The Lives of the Most Famous Painters, Sculptors and Architects” (1550) used the term rinascita(literally “rebirth”) contrasted the new art coming from Giotto to Brunel Leschi, Alberti, Leonardo, Raphael, Michelangelo and other masters, with the “barbaric” Gothic style. At the same time, he had in mind an artistic breakthrough, and by no means a return to ancient origins. But Francesco Petrarch, who is traditionally considered the first Renaissance writer, called first of all to resurrect the ancient canon, and most importantly, classical Latin, to cleanse the language of the layers of the barbaric Middle Ages. It is easy to see that these two authors meant fundamentally different things by “renaissance.”
IN mid-19th century century, after the publication of Jules Michelet’s book “History of France in the 16th Century: Renaissance,” historians began to call French manner the entire period from the 14th to the 16th centuries. The term caught on: within five years, Jacob Burckhardt’s textbook work “Die Kultur der Renaissance in Italien” (“Culture of Italy in the Renaissance”) was published. Gradually, the word "renaissance" or "rebirth" began to be used more widely, meaning any interest in the renewal of lost knowledge. For example, the flourishing of literature, theology, jurisprudence and other knowledge under Charlemagne and his descendants (8th-9th centuries) is often described as the Carolingian Renaissance, and the Renaissance of the 12th century is the rise of science, philosophy and poetry in Europe associated with translation into Latin many previously unknown texts - not only from Greek, but also from Arabic.
Francesco Petrarca. Engraving by Francesco Allegrini. 1761 Rijksmuseum, AmsterdamSome modern historians believe that the era from Petrarch to the 17th century is more honestly called the early modern period. Firstly, such a term absorbs realities that affected all segments of the population (the lower classes were unlikely to read Greek authors or study ancient architectural orders). Secondly, the idea of the Middle Ages as a temporary lapse into darkness, after which the light shone again classical culture, is long outdated. However, the term “early modern time” did not supplant the “Renaissance”. This is confirmed, for example, by the Renaissance Society of America, an association that includes about four thousand specialists in the culture, history, and science of the Renaissance, which holds annual conferences with hundreds of participants. We can safely conclude that both terms are relevant: one relates more to social and economic history, the second to cultural history.
2. When was the Renaissance
It is impossible to accurately define the boundaries of the era; The debate on this issue has been going on for decades and is unlikely to ever end. The symbolic starting point is most often taken to be 1341, when Francesco Petrarch was crowned with a laurel wreath on the Capitol. In ancient times, a wreath was awarded to the winner of poetic competitions, but in the 14th century Petrarch found himself out of competition: he was rightfully recognized as the indisputable triumphant, the heir to ancient literature, called upon to revive pure Latin. 1341 is a more than arbitrary date, but there is a consensus in science that the Renaissance began in Italy in the 14th century, and its first and main center was Florence. When the end came is an even more controversial question. The final chord of the Renaissance can be considered the discovery of America (1492), the beginning of the Reformation (1517), the execution of the philosopher Giordano Bruno (1600), and the end of the Thirty Years' War (1648). The latter date, in particular, is adhered to by the author of the Civilization of the Renaissance, Jean Delumeau, and one can perhaps agree with him: the signing of the Peace of Westphalia marked a fundamental new stage in the history of European states. International relations have lost their strict hierarchy: the kings, electors, princes and landgraves of Europe have ceased to consider the emperors of the Holy Roman Empire as God-given overlords. The idea of sovereign states and non-interference in their internal affairs arose and took hold, and the idea of religious tolerance appeared. New norms meant the dawn of a new era.
3. Renaissance and Middle Ages
According to popular belief, the Renaissance abandoned medieval superstitions in favor of science and turned to man instead of God. It is generally accepted that the first thing the Renaissance did was to abandon scholasticism, that is, the system of strict philosophical proof of the existence of God, on which the work of the first universities was based ( schola). Now this word is considered almost a curse, but initially scholasticism was one of the greatest achievements of European intellectual culture. It was she who taught European man to think logically; A significant role in this process was played by the works of Aristotle, which in the 12th century returned to scientific circulation in translations from Arabic.
If scholasticism was based on Aristotle, then the Renaissance philosophical system placed another ancient author - Plato - at the forefront. His works were first translated into Latin by the Florentine Marsilio Ficino. It was a great European sensation: at the end of the 15th century, almost no one knew Greek, the texts were considered lost and were restored from fragmentary quotations.
In fact, the Renaissance never broke with tradition, Anselm of Canterbury and other great scholastic theologians. New, original and interesting commentaries on Aristotle's translations continued to be written and published until the 17th century. In addition, the Middle Ages never neglected man and his place in the structure of the universe, and the Renaissance authors did not abandon God. On the contrary, they considered theology to be the main work of their lives. The same Marsilio Ficino sought to subordinate Plato’s ideas to Christian doctrine. His younger contemporary Giovanni Pico della Mirandola, in his theological treatises and philosophical writings, sought to prove the commonality of all the teachings of the world and bring them into a single Christian system.
4. Renaissance humanism
Benozzo Gozzoli. Arrival of the Magi in Bethlehem. Painting in the chapel of the Palazzo Medici - Riccardi. Florence, 1459-1460 Members of the Medici family and their contemporaries are depicted as the Magi and participants in the procession. Getty Images Almost the only direction of Renaissance thought is considered to be humanism, which was not even a full-fledged philosophical system. Humanist scientists Coluccio Salutati, Leonardo Bruni, Niccolo Niccoli only proposed a new educational program - studia humanitatis, that is, according to Bruni, “knowledge of those things that relate to life and morals and improve and adorn a person” Quote by: L. M. Batkin. Italian Renaissance: problems and people. M., 1995.. The program centered around the study of ancient languages - Latin, Ancient Greek, and a little later, Hebrew.
The humanists also did not have a formal center: Plato’s academy in Kara-ji is most likely a later myth. Cosimo de' Medici did indeed give Marsilio Ficino a villa in the Careggi hills, but knowledge-hungry young men did not flock there for regular classes. The Academy was not educational institution, but rather a virtual concept - a free association of like-minded people and interlocutors, admirers and commentators of Plato. It was elevated to the rank of a de facto state institution already in the 16th century. But the Medici dynasty managed to take full advantage of the fact that Plato was first translated in their city - Florence began to be considered the cultural capital of the Renaissance.
5. Science and magic in the Renaissance
The Middle Ages are usually blamed for superstition, while the Renaissance is considered the time of the victory of reason over prejudice. However, magic played a crucial role both in the Renaissance picture of the world and in the works of the fathers of the so-called “scientific revolution”. The inventor of the cardan shaft, Girolamo Cardano, and the physicist Galileo Galilei compiled horoscopes; the astronomer and mathematician Johannes Kepler tried to simultaneously reform astrology; Astronomer Tycho Brahe, in addition to astrology, was interested in alchemy, as was Isaac Newton. Except that Nicolaus Copernicus was not interested in magic, but his only student Johann Rheticus was professionally involved in astrology.
6. Revolution in art
The art of the Renaissance produced a real revolution, but it was not started by the textbook Leonardo, Michelangelo and Raphael. One of the most important artistic innovations of the era was oil painting. Since the time of Vasari, it has been generally accepted that it was invented by the Dutch master Jan van Eyck (1390-1441). In fact, in Afghanistan, pigments diluted in vegetable oil were used in the 6th century (archaeologists discovered this already today, when they began to explore the caves that opened behind the backs of the Bamiyan Buddhas blown up by the Taliban), and oil painting reached Northern Europe in the 12th century. century (it is mentioned in the treatise of Presbyter Theophilus “On the Various Arts”). However, it was van Eyck who brought this technique to virtuoso perfection.
Oil painting penetrated into Italy as an overseas fashion: Ferrara resident Cosimo Tura studied it from the works of the Fleming Rogier van der Weyden from the collection of his patron, Duke Lionello d'Este, and Antonello da Messina mastered the basics at the Neapolitan court, where Alfonso of Aragon brought masters from all over Europe, including from the Netherlands. Together with oil from there, many compositional novelties came to Italy, which we now admire in the canvases of Bellini, Carpaccio and other famous masters - optical and lighting effects, hidden symbolism, playing with interiors, the establishment of secular portraiture as an independent genre.
Masaccio. Trinity. Fresco in the Church of Santa Maria Novella. Florence, around 1427 Wikimedia Commons The laws of perspective were first applied by Tommaso di Giovanni di Simone Cassai, who went down in history under the nickname Masaccio. The most famous example is the “Trinity” from the Florentine church of Santa Maria Novella (1425-1427), but Masaccio began experimenting already in his first work, “The Triptych of San Gioven le”. It is believed that Masaccio mastered the science of perspective under the guidance of Filippo Brunelleschi, the man who for the first time since ancient times attempted to build a dome (this technique was completely lost). Florence's Cathedral of Santa Maria del Fiore, completed by Brunelleschi, became one of the main buildings of the era.
7. What was invented during the Renaissance
A page of the Bible printed by Gutenberg. 1454-1456 Wurttemberg State Library In addition to the printing press (Johanns Gutenberg, 1440s), the telescope (Galileo Galilei, 1609), the microscope (Zachary Jansen, Cornelius Drebbel - late 16th century) and the swing-resistant magnetic compass, the Renaissance gave the world another important device , which determined the fate of humanity - a toilet with a flush cistern. The inventor of the mechanism was the court poet of Elizabeth I, the translator of Ariosto, Sir John Harington: he dubbed his creation “Ajax”, and managed to make a political satire out of the assembly manual. One of the first copies (1596) was presented to the queen, but she did not appreciate either the gift or the original form of its description - the author was expelled from the court for several years.
8. What was discovered during the Renaissance
Amerigo Vespucci discovers America. Engraving by Theodore Galle after an original by Stradanus. 16th century Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam First of all, of course, America. The Old World suddenly realized that it was old, and beyond the seas there was still a new one that had to be explored, conquered, divided and properly explored. In addition to gold, exotic treasures poured into the ports of Portugal, Italy, Spain and England: animated truffles (known to us as potatoes), decorative fruits of love (as the poet Sir Walter Raleigh presented tomatoes to Queen Elizabeth), and at the same time parrots, sunflowers, turkeys, cocoa, corn and Guinea pigs. And without potatoes, for example, the radical increase in the population of Europe in XVII-XVIII centuries would hardly have been possible. But the Great Geographical Discoveries did not end there: the Port Tugals landed in China (1513), the Dutch in Australia (1606), Tasmania and New Zealand (1642); They also explored the Arctic (Willem Barents, 1594-1597) and developed the principles of modern cartography (Gerard Mercator in the 1540s taught the whole world to use an equiangular cylindrical projection - this is how maps acquired their usual appearance, with parallel lines of longitude and latitude). Meanwhile, another native of the Netherlands, Andreas Vesalius, thoroughly understood the insides of a person: he established that men and women have the same number of ribs and teeth (before Vesalius, doctors were sure that men were entitled to 32 teeth, and women - 28), and found out how the skeleton, muscles and vascular system. By the way, illustrations for the anatomical atlases of Vesalius were drawn by Titian’s student, Jan Just van Kalkar.
Leiden, NY, 1990.
Berkeley, Los Angeles, 2011.
Italy is the best place to easily understand art history. There are masterpieces literally at every step here.
From this article you will learn:
“Rinascimento”: ri - “again” + nasci - “born”
I hope everyone has heard the concept of “renaissance”. Born again, born again. Or - the Renaissance. Almost always this concept is applied to the field of art: painting, literature, architecture, etc. By the way, science can also be included here.
Botticelli, Birth of Venus
Now let’s figure it out, what exactly was born again? This is a special type of culture that has already gone beyond the Middle Ages, but only precedes the Age of Enlightenment.
The term was first introduced by Giorgio Vasari (Italian humanist). This means some significant step forward in all spheres of social life, and especially in the cultural sphere. Flourishing, coming out of the shadows, transformation.
The struggle between the Middle Ages and Antiquity
If it’s not yet very clear, I’ll explain it more simply. The fact is that Medieval culture, painting, poetry, and people’s lives themselves were very dependent on the church, hierarchy in society and religion. Medieval art is religious art, personality is lost here, it does not matter.
By the way, there are several foreign languages on the pages of my blog!
Remember medieval Catholic frescoes and paintings. These are very frightening images that please the church. There are saints, righteous people, and in contrast the Last Judgment, terrible demons, monsters. A situation was created where being yourself, having ordinary human passions and desires was a sure path to hell. Only a pure-hearted, righteous Christian could hope for salvation and forgiveness.
Domanico Veneziano, Madonna and Child
The Renaissance is characterized by anthropocentrism and. At its center is a person, his activities, thoughts, aspirations. This approach is characteristic of the era of Ancient Culture. This Ancient Rome, Greece. Paganism is being replaced by Christianity in Europe, and at the same time the canons of art are completely changing.
Rafael Santi, Madonna in Greenery
Now a person was considered as an individual, an important component of society. Man received freedom in art, which the strict laws of the religious culture of the Middle Ages never gave him.
The Renaissance, excuse the tautology, revives the period of Antiquity, but this is already its higher, modern level. Europe came under its influence in the period from the 15th to the 16th centuries. In Italy there will be a slightly different chronological framework of the Renaissance, I will tell you a little later.
Where did it all start?
It all started with a fall Byzantine Empire. If Europe was under the rule of the church for a long time, then in Byzantium no one forgot about the art of the Ancient period. People fled the crumbling empire. They took books, paintings with them, brought sculptures and new ideas to Europe.
Fall of the Byzantine Empire
Cosimo de' Medici founded Plato's Academy in Florence. Rather, it revives it. All this was inspired by the speech of one Byzantine lecturer.
Cities are growing, and the influence of classes, such as artisans, merchants, bankers, and craftsmen, is growing. The hierarchical value system is absolutely not important to them. The humble spirit of religious art is incomprehensible and alien to them.
A modern movement appears - humanism. It is precisely this that has a powerful influence on the new art of the Renaissance. European cities sought to develop progressive centers of science and art.
This area came under the influence of the Church. Of course, the Middle Ages, with their bonfires and book burnings, set back the development of civilization by decades. Now, with huge strides, the Renaissance sought to catch up.
Italian Renaissance
Fine art is becoming not only an important component of the era, but also a necessary activity. People now need art. Why?
Rafael Santi, portrait
A period of economic recovery is coming, and with it a gigantic shift in people's minds. The entire consciousness of a person was no longer aimed only at survival, new needs appeared.
To portray the world as it is, to show real beauty and real problems - this is the task of those who became iconic figures of the Italian Renaissance.
It is believed that this movement appeared in Italy. Moreover, it arose since the 13th century. Then the first beginnings of a new movement appear in the works of Paramoni, Pisano, then Giotto and Orcagna. It only finally took root in the 1420s.
In total, 4 major stages in the formation of the era can be distinguished:
- Proto-Renaissance (what happened in Italy);
- Early Renaissance;
- High Renaissance;
- Late Renaissance.
Let's look at each period in more detail.
Proto-Renaissance
Still closely associated with the Middle Ages. This is a period of gradual transition from the traditions of the old time to the new. It took place in the period from the 2nd half of the 13th century to the 14th century. Slowed down its development a little due to the global plague epidemic in Italy.
Proto-Renaissance, Andrea Mantegna, altarpiece of San Zeno in Verona
The painting of this period is best characterized by the works of the masters of Florence Cimabue, Giotto, as well as the Siena school - Duccio, Simone Martini. Of course, the most important figure of the proto-Renaissance is considered to be the master Giotto. Truly a reformer of the canons of painting.
Early Renaissance
This is the period from 1420 to 1500. We can say this is the time of a smooth transition to a new trend. Still borrows a lot from the art of yesteryear. New trends and images are mixed into it, and many everyday motifs are added. Painting and architecture, literature are becoming less and less figurative, more and more “human”.
Early Renaissance, Basilica di Santa Maria del Carmine, Firenze
High Renaissance
The magnificent heyday of the Renaissance occurred between 1500 and 1527 in Italy. Its center is transferred from Florence to Rome. Pope Julius II favors the new mood, which significantly helps the masters.
Sistine Madonna, Raphael Santi, High Renaissance
He is an enterprising, modern man, and allocates funds to create works of art. The best frescoes in Italy are painted, churches, buildings, palaces are built. It is considered completely appropriate to borrow the features of Antiquity in the creation of even religious buildings.
The most iconic artists of Italy during the High Renaissance are Leonardo da Vinci and Raphael Santi.
I was in the Louvre in March 2012, there were not many tourists and I calmly and with pleasure was able to look at the painting “Mona Lisa”, which is also called “La Gioconda”. Indeed, no matter which side of the hall you go, her eyes are always looking at you. Miracle! Is not it?
Mona Lisa, Leonardo da Vinci
Late Renaissance
Took place from 1530 to 1590-1620s. Historians agreed to reduce the work of this period into a single one only conditionally. There were so many new directions that it was dizzying. This applies to all types of creativity.
Then the Counter-Reformation triumphed in Southern Europe. They began to look very warily at the excessive glorification of the human body. There were many opponents of a bright return to Antiquity.
Veronese, Marriage at Cana, Late Renaissance
As a result of such a struggle, the style of “nervous art” appears - mannerism. There are broken lines, contrived colors and images, sometimes too ambiguous, and sometimes exaggerated.
In parallel with this, the works of Titian and Palladio appeared. Their work is considered iconic for the late Renaissance; it is completely unaffected by the crisis trends of that century.
The philosophy of those periods finds a new object of study: the “universal” person. Here philosophical trends intertwine with painting. For example, Leonardo da Vinci. His works represent the idea of the absence of boundaries, limits for the human mind.
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The era takes over the North
Yes, it all started in Italy. Then the current moved on. I would like to say just a few words about the Northern Renaissance. Later, it came to the Netherlands, Germany and France. There was no Renaissance in that classical sense, but a new style conquered Europe.
Gothic art prevails, and human knowledge fades into the background. Albrecht Durer, Hans Holbein the Younger, Lucas Cranach the Elder, Pieter Bruegel the Elder stand out.
The best representatives of the whole era
We talked about the history of this interesting period. Let's now take a closer look at all its components.
Renaissance Man
The main thing is to understand - who is the man of the Renaissance?
Philosophers will help us here. For them, the object of study was the mind and capabilities of the person who creates. It is the mind that distinguishes Man from everything else. Reason makes him Similar to God, because Man can create, create. This is a Creator, a creator of new things, a constantly developing person.
It is at the intersection of Nature and Modernity. Nature gave him an incredible gift - a perfect body and powerful intellect. Modern world opens up endless possibilities. Education, fantasy and its implementation. There are no limits to what a person is capable of.
Vitruvian Man, Leonardo Da Vinci
Ideal human personality now: kindness, strength, heroism, the ability to create and create a new world around oneself. The most important thing here is personal freedom.
The idea of a person is changing - now he is free, full of strength and enthusiasm. Of course, such an idea of \u200b\u200bpeople motivated them to do something great, meaningful, and important.
“Nobility is like a kind of radiance emanating from virtue and illuminating its owners, no matter what their origin.” (Poggio Bracciolini, 15th century).
Development of science
The period of the XIV-XVI centuries became significant in the development of science. What's happening in Europe?
- This is the period of great geographical discoveries;
- Nicolaus Copernicus changes people's understanding of the Earth, proves that the Earth revolves around the Sun;
- Paracelsus and Vesalius make huge leaps in medicine and anatomy. For a long time dissection and study of human anatomy was a crime, a desecration of the body. Knowledge of medicine was completely incomplete, and all research was forbidden;
- Niccolo Machiavelli explores sociology, the behavior of people in groups;
- The idea of an “ideal society” appears, Campanella’s “City of the Sun”;
- Since the 15th century, printing has been actively developing, many works have been published for the people, scientific and historical works are becoming available to anyone;
- Active study of ancient languages and translations of ancient books began.
Illustration for the book City of the Sun, Campanella
Literature and Philosophy
The most prominent representative of the era is Dante Alighieri. His "Comedy" or " Divine Comedy" her contemporaries admired her; she was made an example of pure literature of the Renaissance.
In general, the period can be characterized as the glorification of a harmonious, free, creative, comprehensively developed personality.
Francesco Petrarch's free sonnets about love reveal the depths of the human soul. In them we see a secret, hidden world of feelings, suffering and joy from love. A person's emotions come first.
Petrarch and Laura
Giovanni Boccaccio, Niccolo Machiavelli, Ludovico Ariosto and Torquato Tasso glorified the era with their works absolutely different styles. But they became classic for the Renaissance.
Of course, romantic stories, stories of love and friendship, funny stories and tragic novels. Here is Boccaccio's Decameron, for example.
Decameron, Boccaccio
Pico della Mirandola wrote: “O the highest and most delightful happiness of man, to whom it is given to possess what he wants and to be what he wants.”
Famous philosophers of this era:
- Leonardo Bruni;
- Galileo Galilei;
- Niccolo Machiavelli;
- Giordano Bruno;
- Gianozzo Manetti;
- Pietro Pomponazzi;
- Tommaso Campanella;
- Marsilio Ficino;
- Giovanni Pico della Mirandola.
Interest in philosophy is growing sharply. Free thinking ceases to be something forbidden. The topics for analysis are very diverse, modern, and topical. There are no longer topics that are considered inappropriate, and the reflections of philosophers are no longer just to please the church.
art
One of the fastest growing areas is painting. Of course, so many new topics have appeared. Now the artist also becomes a philosopher. He shows his view on the laws of nature, anatomy, life prospects, ideas, light. There are no more prohibitions for those who have talent and want to create.
Do you think the topic of religious painting is no longer relevant? Quite the opposite. The Renaissance masters created amazing new paintings. The old canons are disappearing, their place is taken by three-dimensional compositions, landscapes and “worldly” attributes appear. The saints are dressed realistically, they become closer, more humane.
Michelangelo, The Creation of Adam
Sculptors also enjoy using religious themes. Their creativity becomes more free and frank. The human body and anatomical details are no longer taboo. The theme of the ancient gods returns.
Beauty, harmony, balance, the female and male body come first. There is no prohibition, modesty, or depravity in the beauty of the human body.
Architecture
The principles and forms of ancient Roman art are returning. Now geometry and symmetry prevail, and much attention is paid to finding ideal proportions.
Back in fashion:
- niches, hemispheres of domes, arches;
- aedicules;
- soft lines.
They replaced the cold Gothic outlines. For example, the famous Cathedral of Santa Maria del Fiore, Villa Rotonda. It was then that the first Villas appeared - suburban construction. Usually, large complexes with gardens and terraces.
Cathedral of Santa Maria del Fiore
Huge contributions to architecture were made by:
- Filippo Brunelleschi - considered the "father" renaissance architecture. He developed the prospect theory and the order system. It was he who created the dome of the Florence Cathedral.
- Leon Battista Alberti - became famous for rethinking the motifs of early Christian basilicas* from the time of Constantine.
- Donato Bramante - worked during the High Renaissance. Famous for its precise proportions.
- Michelangelo Buonarroti - the main architect of the Late Renaissance. He created St. Peter's Basilica and the Laurentian staircase.
- Andrea Palladio is the founder of classicism. He created his own movement, called Palladianism. He worked in Venice, designing the largest cathedrals and palaces.
During the Early and High Renaissance, they were built best palaces Italy. For example, Villa Medici in Poggio a Caiano. Also, Palazzo Pitti.
The predominant colors were blue, yellow, purple, brown.
In general, the architecture of that time was distinguished by its stability on the one hand, and on the other - smooth lines, semicircular transitions and complex arches.
The premises were spacious, with high ceilings. Decorated with wood or foliage ornaments.
*Basilica - church, cathedral. It has a rectangular shape and one or more (odd number) naves. It is characteristic of the early Christian period, and the form itself is derived from ancient Greek and Roman temple buildings.
New building materials began to be used. The base is stone blocks. Began to be processed different ways. New building solutions are appearing. This is also a period of active use of plaster.
Brick becomes a decorative and structural material. Glazed brick, terracotta and majolica are also used. Much attention is paid to decorative details and the quality of their workmanship.
Now metals are also used for decorative processing. These are copper, tin and bronze. The development of carpentry makes it possible to make amazingly beautiful, openwork elements from hardwood.
Music
Increasing influence folk music. Vocal and vocal-instrumental polyphony is developing rapidly. Particularly successful here Venice school. New musical styles appear in Italy - frottola and villanelle.
Caravaggio, Musician with Lute
Italy is famous for its bowed instruments. There is even a struggle between the viol and the violin for the best performance of the same melodies. New styles of singing are taking over Europe - solo song, cantata, oratorio and opera.
Why Italy?
By the way, why did the Renaissance begin in Italy? The fact is that most of the population lived in cities. Yes, this is a situation unusual for the period of the XIII-XV centuries. But, if there were no special circumstances, would all the masterpieces of the Epoch appear?
Trade and crafts developed rapidly. It was simply necessary to study, invent, and improve the products of one’s labor. This is how thinkers, sculptors, and artists appeared. Products had to be made more attractive, books with illustrations sold better.
Trade always means travel. People needed languages. They saw a lot of new things in their travels and tried to introduce them into the life of their city.
Vasari, Florence
On the other hand, Italy is the heir to the Great Roman Empire. The love of beauty, the remnants of ancient culture - all this is concentrated in the cities of Italy. Such an atmosphere simply could not help but encourage talented people to make new discoveries.
Scientists believe that another reason is the Western, and not the Eastern, type of Christian religion. It is believed that this is a special form of Christianity. The outer side of the country's Catholic life allowed for a certain freedom of thought.
For example, the emergence of “anti-popes”! Then the pontiffs themselves argued for power, using inhumane, completely illegal methods to achieve their goals. The people watched this, realizing that in real life Catholic principles and morals do not always work.
Now God became an object of theoretical knowledge, and not the center of human life. Man was clearly separated from God. Of course, this gave rise to all sorts of doubts. Science and culture develop in such conditions. Naturally, art becomes divorced from religion.
Friends, thank you for reading my articles! I hope this cleared things up important points about the Italian Renaissance.
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I was with you, Natalya Glukhova, I wish you a good day!