In the history of Indian philosophy, there are several periods, the division into which is in itself quite arbitrary. Let us dwell first and foremost on the main ones, which laid the foundation for all Indian philosophy and constituted the philosophical classics of Indian thought and its entire culture, namely: Vedic and epic periods.

Philosophy of the Vedic period

The main source of information about this period is an extensive complex of literary monuments, united by a common name - the Vedas (literally “knowledge”, “knowledge”) and written in the ancient Indian language Sanskrit (the so-called Vedic Sanskrit).

The Vedas consist of four collections of hymns (samhitas), chants, magic spells, prayers, etc.: Samaveda, Yajurveda and Atharvaveda (or Atharvangirasa). Each of these collections (usually known as the Vedas proper) over time acquired various commentaries and additions of a ritual, magical, philosophical order - Brahmanas, Aranyakas, Upanishads. The actual philosophical views of Ancient India were most fully reflected in the Upanishads.

All Vedic texts are considered sacred books, a divine revelation like the Bible, although in their main features they were probably formed by the middle of the 1st millennium BC. e. Brahmins were considered the true experts and interpreters of the Vedas.

Philosophy of the Upanishads. Originally it meant sitting around a teacher with the goal of learning the truth. Then this term came to mean secret teaching. The Upanishads develop the themes of the Vedas: the idea of ​​the unity of all things, cosmological themes, the search for cause-and-effect relationships of phenomena, etc. For example, questions were posed such as: “Where is the sun at night?”, “Where do the stars disappear during the day?” etc. But unlike previous texts in the Upanishads, the main attention is paid not to the external, but to the internal side of being and phenomena. At the same time, the main attention is paid to man, his knowledge and, above all, moral improvement. “Who are we?”, “Where did we come from?”, “Where are we going?” - these are the characteristic questions of the Upanishads.

The fundamental principle of existence in the Upanishads is Brahman- a universal, impersonal world soul, a spiritual principle from which the whole world arises with all its elements. This universality of the Brahman is achieved through his knowledge of himself. Brahman is identical and at the same time opposed atman- individual soul, subjective spiritual principle, “I”.

At the same time, brahman and atman are identical, the brahman in the individual realizes itself and thereby passes into the atman, becomes it. In turn, at the highest level of the intuitive “I”, when subject and object are fused together, atman merges with brahman. Thus, we have before us an example of dialectical thinking, in particular, the statement identities of opposites: brahman as the highest objective principle and atman as the subjective spiritual principle. The idea of ​​the identity of brahman and atman, object and subject, world soul and individual soul also means the possibility of their mutual transition.

The doctrine of Brahman and Atman is the central point of the Upanishads, affirming the identity of the existence of an individual person with the universal essence of the world. Related to this is the doctrine of samsara(circle of life) and karma(law of retribution) in the Upanishads.

In the teaching of samsara, human life is understood as a certain form of endless rebirth. And the future birth of an individual is determined by the law of karma. The future of a person is the result of those deeds and actions that a person performed in previous lives. And only one who has led a decent lifestyle can expect to be born in a future life as a representative of the highest varna (class): a brahmana (priest), kshatriya (warrior or government official) or vaishya (farmer, artisan or merchant) . Those who led an unrighteous lifestyle will in the future face the fate of a member of the lower varna - a shudra (commoner) or even worse: his atman may end up in the body of an animal.

Therefore, the most important task of man and the main category of the Upanishads is liberation (moksha) him from the “world of objects and passions”, constant moral improvement. This liberation is realized through the dissolution of atman in brahman, the knowledge of the identity of one’s individual soul with the world soul. Thus, in the philosophy of the Upanishads, every person is the “smith” of his own happiness, his entire fate depends on his own behavior.

As already mentioned, knowledge and self-knowledge is one of the most important themes and problems of the Upanishads. But we are not talking primarily about sensory or even rational knowledge. Genuine, most true knowledge consists in the deepest and most complete union and awareness of the identity of atman and brahman. And only those who are able to realize this identity are freed from the endless series of rebirths of samsara. The soul of such a person merges with the brahman and remains in him forever. At the same time, she is freed from the influence of karma. This is the highest goal and the truest path - "path of the gods" (devayana), unlike the usual way - “the ways of the fathers” (pitryana). Devayana is achieved through austerity and higher knowledge.

Thus, in the philosophy of the Upanishads, a person (unlike, for example, Christianity or Islam) is not considered in relation to other people or to humanity as a whole. And human life itself is thought of differently here. Man is not the “crown of creation” of God, nor is he the owner of one single life. His life is an endless chain of rebirths. But he has the opportunity to break the circle of samsara, get out of the chain of births and achieve the highest goal - liberation from being. Life, therefore, is seen as a long process of changing different lives and they must be lived in such a way as to ultimately leave samsara, that is, get rid of life.

Hence the meaning of ancient Indian philosophy, and the nature of the Indian worldview was different than in the West. It was aimed not at changing the external conditions of existence - nature and society, but at self improvement. In other words, she was not extroverted, but introverted in nature.

The Upanishads had a huge influence on the further development of philosophical thought in India. Thus, the doctrine of samsara and karma becomes one of the fundamental ones for the subsequent development of all religious and philosophical trends in India. The Upanishads had a great impact, in particular, on the various philosophical systems of Hinduism and Buddhism. Their influence is also found in the views of such major thinkers as Rammohon Raya, Gandhi, Schopenhauer and others.

Philosophy of the epic period

The name “epic period” (from the word “epic”) is due to the fact that at this time “ Ramayana" And " Mahabharata” serve as a means of expressing the heroic and divine in human relationships. During this period, the ideas of the Upanishads were subjected to great criticism in " Bhagavad Gita"(one of the books of the Mahabharata).

This period in the development of Indian philosophy begins in the 6th century. BC e., when significant changes occur in Indian society: agricultural and handicraft production develops, social differentiation increases, the institution of tribal power loses its influence and the power of the monarchy increases. Along with this, changes are also taking place in the worldview of Indian society. In particular, criticism of Vedic Brahmanism is intensifying. Intuition gives way to research, religion to philosophy. Within philosophy itself, various, including opposing and warring schools and systems appear, which reflect the real contradictions of that time.

Heterodox schools in Indian philosophy

Among the many adherents of new views who rebelled against the authority of the Vedas, we should name, first of all, representatives of such systems as: carvaka(materialists), Jainism,Buddhism. All of them belong to unorthodox schools of Indian philosophy.

Charvaka is a materialistic doctrine in Ancient and Medieval India. A later version of a related philosophical concept - lokayats, with which it is sometimes generally identified. No works of this school have survived, and the source of knowledge about this teaching is the statements of representatives of other schools.

Charvaka denies the concept of brahman, atman, samsara and karma. The basis of all things here is matter in the form of four primary elements: earth, water, fire and air. Both life and consciousness are considered as derivatives of these material primary elements. Matter can think. Death is the end of everything. The name “lokayata” corresponds to the essence and content of this teaching - only this world, or loka, exists. That is why materialists are called lokayats. They are also called Charvakas, named after the founder of this theory - Charvaka.

The theory of knowledge also corresponds to the ontological essence of this teaching. Its basis is sensory perception peace. Only that which is known through direct perception is true. Therefore, there is no reason for the existence of another world, not perceived by the senses. No other world simply can exist. Therefore, religion is a stupid delusion. Belief in God and the other world is, from the point of view of representatives of this school, a sign of feeblemindedness, weakness, and cowardice.

The ethical concept of the Charvakas is based on unlimited pleasure - hedonism(from Greek hedone - pleasure). Recognizing only such realities of life as suffering and pleasure within the framework of the sensory existence of the individual, this school considers wealth and pleasure to be the goals of human existence. The motto of the representatives of this school is to eat, drink and enjoy this life today, because death always comes to everyone. “While life is still yours, live joyfully: no one can escape the piercing gaze of death.” This theory, therefore, affirms selfishness and preaches earthly human desires. All moral standards, according to this teaching, are just human conventions that should not be paid attention to.

Assessing the philosophy of materialists, we can say that it has done a lot to criticize the old religion and philosophy, to debunk the authority of the Vedas, their untruth and inconsistency.

“The philosophy of the Charvakas,” writes the greatest modern philosopher of India, S. Radhakrishnan, “is a fanatical effort aimed at liberating the contemporary generation from the burden of the past that weighed on it. The elimination of dogmatism, which took place with the help of this philosophy, was necessary in order to make room for the constructive efforts of speculation.

At the same time, this philosophy was a one-sided worldview that denied the role of intellect and reason in knowledge. Therefore, from her point of view, it was impossible to explain where abstract, universal ideas and moral ideals come from. The result of this one-sidedness was nihilism, skepticism and subjectivism. Since the senses belong to an individual, therefore, everyone can have only their own truth. The result of this one-sidedness is their denial of higher moral goals and values.

However, despite these obvious and serious shortcomings, the Charvaka school laid the foundation for criticism of the Brahmanical trend in Indian philosophy, undermined the authority of the Vedas and had a significant influence on the further development of philosophical thought in India.

Jainism. Its founder is considered to be Mahavira Vardhamana (VI century BC). He also received the name Gina, which means Winner (meaning victory over the cycle of rebirth). At the center of this direction is the existence of the individual.

The essence of personality, from the point of view of Jainism, is dualistic: spiritual(jiva) and material(ajiva). The link between jiva and ajiva is karma. However, karma itself is understood here, in contrast to the Upanishads, as a subtle matter, and not as a law of retribution. This combination of inanimate, gross matter with the soul through karma leads to the emergence of personality. And karma constantly accompanies the soul in an endless chain of rebirths.

The human soul is forced to wander, constantly being reborn, as long as it is connected with subtle matter. But right knowledge and asceticism can help her become free from the material world (ajiva). In this case, the soul moves to the higher sphere, where it constantly remains in pure spirituality. This is because the jiva exists in two forms of existence: imperfect and perfect. In the first case, it is in connection with matter and in a state suffering. In the second - jiva freed up from this connection she becomes free, capable of managing her own existence. In this case, she goes into a state of bliss - nirvana, the highest state of the soul when the ultimate goal is achieved.

According to this, Jainism recognizes two types of knowledge: imperfect based on experience and reason, and perfect, based on intuition and comprehending the truth through direct observation. The second is available only to those who have freed themselves from the dependence of the material world (ajiva). At the same time, Jainism recognizes the relativity of knowledge and the possibility of multiple points of view when considering a subject. His dialectical method is connected with this.

A characteristic feature of the philosophical and ethical concept of Jainism is its development of rules and norms of human behavior and the requirement of their strict observance. Ethical education of the individual is a decisive factor in the transition of the individual’s existence from an imperfect state to a perfect one. And although karma is everything, our present life, which is in our own control, can change the impact of the past. And with the help of excessive efforts we can avoid the effects of karma. Therefore, in the teachings of the Jains there is no absolute fatalism, as it may seem at first glance.

The correct life of a person is associated with ascetic behavior, which was practiced in India by many great saints who even gave themselves up to death. Only asceticism leads to the cessation of rebirths and to the liberation of the soul from samsara. Moreover, liberation is individual in nature. Everyone frees themselves. However, the ethics of Jainism, although egocentric, is far from egoistic in nature, as in the teachings of the Charvakas. Egoism and individualism presuppose the opposition of the individual to the social environment, the assertion of one’s own interests at the expense of other people. Meanwhile, the basic ethical principles of Jainism: detachment from worldly wealth, vanity, passions, respect for all living beings, etc. are little compatible with egoism and individualism.

It should be noted that the philosophy of Jainism retains its influence in India today.

Buddhism just like Jainism, it arose in the 6th century. BC e. Its founder is an Indian prince Siddhartha Gautama, who later received the name Buddha(awakened, enlightened), because after many years of hermitage and asceticism he achieved awakening, that is, he came to understand the correct path of life, rejecting extremes.

A characteristic feature of this teaching is its ethical and practical orientation, and the central question that interests him is existence of personality. Buddhism is based on the “Four Noble Truths”:

1. human existence from birth to death is inextricably linked with suffering;
2. there is a cause of suffering, which is the thirst for existence (the desire for life), leading through joys and passions to rebirth;
3. there is liberation from suffering, elimination of the causes of suffering, i.e. the elimination of this thirst for being;
4. exists path, leading to liberation from suffering, which rejects both a life devoted only to sensual pleasures and the path of asceticism and self-torture. This is precisely the Buddhist principle of the so-called middle path, which recommends avoiding extremes.

Liberation from suffering as the ultimate goal of a person’s existence is, first of all, the destruction of desires, or more precisely, the extinguishing of their passion. Connected with this is the most important concept of Buddhism in the moral sphere - the concept tolerance (tolerance) and relativity. According to her, the point is not in some generally binding moral precepts, but in not causing harm to others. This is the main principle of personal behavior, which is based on a feeling of kindness and complete satisfaction.

Its concept is organically connected with the ethics of Buddhism knowledge. Cognition here is a necessary way and means of achieving the ultimate goal of a person’s existence. In Buddhism, the distinction between the sensory and rational forms of knowledge is eliminated and the practice of meditation(from lat. rneditatio - concentrated reflection) - deep mental concentration and detachment from external objects and internal experiences. The result of this is direct experience of the wholeness of being, complete self-absorption and self-satisfaction. A state of absolute freedom and independence of the inner being of the individual is achieved, which is precisely identical to the extinction of desires. It is liberation, or nirvana- a state of supreme bliss, the ultimate goal of a person’s aspirations and his existence, characterized by detachment from life’s worries and desires. This does not mean the death of a person, but his exit from the cycle of rebirth, liberation from samsara and merging with the deity.

Practice meditation constitutes the essence of Buddhist insight into life. Like prayer in Christianity, meditation is the core of Buddhism. Its ultimate goal is enlightenment, or the state of nirvana. It should be borne in mind that in the Buddhist system the determining principle is the absolute autonomy of the individual, his independence from the environment. Buddhism views all human connections with the real world, including the social world, as negative and generally harmful to humans. Hence the need for liberation from imperfect real existence, from external objects and feelings. Related to this is the belief of most Buddhists that the passions that the human body generates and the anxiety associated with it must be overcome. The main way to do this is to achieve nirvana.

Thus, the philosophy of Buddhism, like Jainism, is egocentric and introvertive in nature.

Orthodox schools in ancient Indian philosophy.

In contrast to unorthodox schools (Charvakas, Jainism, Buddhism), in the history of ancient Indian philosophy there were orthodox schools that did not deny the authority of the Vedas, but, on the contrary, relied on them. Let's consider the main philosophical ideas of these schools

Vedanta(the completion of the Vedas) is the most influential system, the most important philosophical basis of Hinduism. She recognizes Brahman as the absolute spiritual essence of the world. Individual souls (atmans) through knowledge or love of God achieve salvation by uniting with God. The way out of the cycle of birth (samsara) lies in considering everything that exists from the point of view of the highest truth; in the knowledge of the truth that the external world surrounding a person is an illusory world, and the true unchanging reality is brahman, with which atman is identified. The main way to achieve this true knowledge is morality and meditation, which means intense meditation on the problems of the Vedas.

The help of the teacher plays an important role in this. Therefore, one of the requirements of Vedanta is the obedient following of the student to the teacher, constant reflection on the truths of Vedanta with the aim of direct and constant contemplation of the truth. Knowledge liberates the soul. Ignorance, on the contrary, enslaves her and increases her desire for sensual pleasures. The study of Vedanta is the main means of liberating the soul.

Mimamsa(reflection, study of the Vedic text on sacrifices). This system concerns the explanation of the ritual of the Vedas. The teaching of the Vedas here is closely associated with dharma - the idea of ​​duty, the fulfillment of which involves, first of all, sacrifice. This fulfillment of one's duty leads to gradual redemption from karma and to liberation as the cessation of rebirth and suffering.

Sankhya(number, enumeration) - it is based not directly on the text of the Vedas, but on independent experience and reflection. In this regard, Samkhya differs from Vedanta and Mimamsa. The teaching of this school expresses the point of view according to which the first cause of the world is matter, nature (prakrita). Along with nature, the existence of absolute soul (purusha). It is thanks to its presence in all things that the things themselves exist. When prakriti and purusha unite, the initial principles of the world arise, both material (water, air, earth, etc.) and spiritual (intelligence, self-awareness, etc.). Thus Samkhya is dualistic direction in the philosophy of Hinduism.

(tension, deep thinking, contemplation). The philosophy of this school is aimed at practical psychological training. Its theoretical basis is Samkhya, although yoga also recognizes a personal god. A large place in this system is occupied by an explanation of the rules of mental training, the successive steps of which are: self-observation ( pit), mastery of breathing in certain positions (postures) of the body ( asana), isolation of feelings from external influences ( pratyahara), concentration of thought ( dharana), meditation ( dhyana), state of rejection ( samadhi). At the last stage, the liberation of the soul from the bodily shell is achieved, the shackles of samsara and karma are broken. The ethical standards of yoga are associated with the formation of a highly moral personality.

Vaisesika. At an early stage of development, this system contains pronounced materialistic aspects. According to it, all things are constantly changing, but they also contain stable elements - spherical atoms. Atoms are eternal, not created by anyone and have many qualities (17 qualities of atoms). From them various animate and inanimate objects arise. Although the world consists of atoms, the driving force behind its development is God, who acts in accordance with the law of karma.

Nyaya(rule, logic) - the study of forms of thinking. In this system the main thing is to study metaphysical problems with the help logic. Nyaya starts from liberation as the ultimate goal of human life. According to representatives of this school, the conditions and methods of true knowledge as a means of achieving liberation can be determined with the help of logic and its laws. Liberation itself is understood as the cessation of the influence of negative factors of suffering.

The Bhagavad Gita, often simply called the Gita, is considered the most significant and famous book not only of the epic period, but of the entire history of India. It forms part of the sixth book of the Mahabharata. “Bhagavad Gita” translated means the song of Bhagavat, i.e. god Krishna, or divine song. It was written around the middle of the 1st millennium BC. e. and expressed the need of the masses to replace the old religion of the Upanishads, with its meager abstractions and headed by an indefinite Absolute, with a less abstract and formal one.

The Bhagavad Gita, with its living personal god (Krishna), successfully completed this task and laid the foundation for a new direction of religious thought - Hinduism. It should be borne in mind that the philosophy of the Gita in no way denies, as has already been said, the authority of the Vedas, but, on the contrary, is significantly influenced by the Upanishads. Moreover, the very philosophical basis of the Gita is taken precisely from the Upanishads. The acceptability of the religious and philosophical basis of Hinduism for the broad masses determined the fact that by the beginning of the new era it had gained decisive influence in the ideological sphere of Indian society.

According to the Bhagavad Gita, the ever-changing natural, material reality is not the primary reality - prakriti. The primary, eternal and unchanging existence is the supreme Brahman. One should not be sad about death, for it is not extinction. Although the individual form of human existence may change, the essence of a person is not destroyed even after death, that is, the atman of a person remains unchanged, even if the body has become dust. In the spirit of the Upanishads, the Gita identifies two principles - Brahman And atman. Behind the mortal body is atman, behind the transitory objects of the world is brahman. These two principles are one and identical in nature. The main object of knowledge in the Bhagavad Gita is the supreme Brahman, who has neither beginning nor end. Having known it, a person becomes immortal.

In form, the Gita is a dialogue between the epic hero Arjuna and the god Krishna, who in the plot acts as the charioteer and mentor of Arjuna. The main meaning of the book is that Krishna embodies the highest divine principle of Hinduism, and the book itself is its philosophical basis.

Unlike the Upanishads, the Bhagavad Gita pays more attention to moral issues and is distinguished by its emotional character. The dialogue between Arjuna and the god Krishna takes place on the eve of the decisive battle, when the commander Arjuna is overcome by doubt as to whether he has the right to kill his relatives. He is thus in a situation where he must make a decisive moral choice.

This choice, associated with understanding one’s place in the moral world, is the main question that faces the hero of the book and every person. The main problem that must be resolved is based on the awareness of the deep moral contradiction between a person’s practical duty and higher moral requirements.

Therefore, unlike the Upanishads, the Bhagavad Gita draws attention not to the external, ritual factors of achieving a moral world order (sacrifice), but to the internal moral freedom of the individual. To obtain it, sacrifices are not enough, thanks to which only rich people can gain the favor of the gods. Gaining inner freedom is achieved by renouncing external, sensual claims and temptations that await a person at every step.

In this regard, the doctrine of yoga- one of the directions in Indian thought, which has developed a whole range of techniques, thanks to which a special state of spirit and mental balance is achieved. Although it should be borne in mind that the roots of yoga are very ancient, and yoga itself forms a common element of most ancient Indian systems. In the Bhagavad Gita, yoga acts as a method of mental education, allowing one to free oneself and purify oneself from all kinds of delusions and to cognize the true reality, the primary being - Brahman, the eternal spirit, which forms the basis of all things.

The main character of the Gita strives to find moral justification for his actions in the deepest foundations of the eternal spirit - brahmana. To achieve brahmana, an ascetic renunciation of everything transitory, egoistic aspirations, and sensual desires is required. But giving up this is the way to gain true freedom and achieve absolute value. Arjuna's true battlefield is the life of his own soul and it is necessary to defeat that which hinders its true development. He tries, without succumbing to temptations and subjugating passions, to conquer the true kingdom of man - true freedom. Achieving it is not an easy task. It requires asceticism, suffering and self-denial.

Indian philosophy arises on the basis of the rich cultural tradition of numerous nationalities of the great Bharata Varsha - Ancient India. According to the most conservative estimates, Indian civilization began several thousand years BC. Some researchers who sympathize with theosophical historiography tend to significantly expand these time boundaries - up to tens or even hundreds of thousands of years. The origins of the spiritual culture of Hindustan, represented by numerous myths, epic poems, religious teachings and ascetic practices of yoga, go back to vast historical depths.

The direct basis of many philosophical systems of Ancient India were the sacred texts of Vedic literature and the associated ancient religion of the peoples of Hindustan - brahmanism(from the name of the supreme god - Brahma, or Brahman). Currently, science knows four Vedas - Rigveda, Samaveda, Yajurveda, Atharva Veda. The period of their formation is estimated by historians very controversially: from a thousand to tens of thousands of years. Nevertheless, it can definitely be said that the Vedas are one of the oldest known written monuments of human thought.

The Vedas in India are considered Holy Scripture or Revelation (giruti), which was written down by ancient spiritual sages (rigia). The texts of the Vedas are a collection of sayings, religious hymns, sacrificial songs and spells. Their problems are very wide. Some hymns already have a philosophical nature in terms of the scale of the issues raised and the methods for solving them.

The text of each Veda is adjacent to several other texts - collections of works by different authors written later. Firstly, these are religious books called Brahmins. They are collections of commentaries and ritual texts. Secondly, this Aranyaki(lit., “forest books”), which were formed as instructions for forest hermits and ascetics. Thirdly, this Upaishads(lit., “to sit at the feet of the teacher”) are philosophical works that are regarded as the highest secret explanations of the texts of the Vedas. Thus, the Vedas, Brahmanas, Aranyakas and Upanishads were formed over a long period of time and had a significant influence on the formation of ancient Indian philosophical thought.

The entire Indian culture was also significantly influenced by puranas(texts of a religious nature), itihasa(historical works) and the epic poems "Mahabharata" and "Ramayana". One of the parts of the Mahabharata was of particular importance for the subsequent development of philosophy in India - Bhagavad Gita(lit., “song of god”). It describes how the semi-legendary spiritual teacher Krishna (considered in the Hindu tradition avatar of the god Vishnu) explains to his friend and student - commander Arjuna the most important provisions of spiritual philosophy and the principles of yoga.

Development of philosophical schools or systems of philosophical speculation (darshan) Ancient India was closely connected with the evolution of religious worldview. The original Vedic religion of the Aryans was transformed over time into Brahmanism. Aryan supreme divine trinity (Indra - Surya - Agiya) was gradually supplanted by the gods of the new holy trinity. These are Brahma (God the creator), Vishnu (God the keeper of the world order) and Shiva (God the destroyer). Under the influence of unorthodox philosophical teachings (Jainism, Buddhism, Ajivika) by the end of the 1st millennium BC. changes of a philosophical, ethical and ritual nature are growing in the bosom of Brahmanism. Over the course of the first millennium, Brahmanism transformed into a new variety - Hinduism, which in the form of two main religious movements ( Saivism And Vaishnavism) has survived to this day almost unchanged.

The fundamental ideas about the world and man, characteristic of the Vedic religion and Brahmanism, later became the subject of further development or criticism by Indian philosophical schools. The most important aspects of this religious worldview are schematically as follows.

The cause of the universe was considered Brahman, understood at first purely religiously - as divine Absolute Personality, later philosophically - as the highest Absolute Beginning objective order. The universe consists of three worlds ( triloka) - the highest spiritual (heaven), earthly and lower underground. They are home to numerous living beings: gods, humans, animals, demons, spirits, elementals and souls.

Man is the creation of the gods and at the same time represents a part of nature. He was originally endowed Atman - the spiritual principle of a subjective nature, which is the basis of his immortal divine soul. Soul (jiva) is included in the cycle of constant rebirths in the three worlds ( wheel of samsara), which are regulated karma(first - the god of retribution, later - the law of retribution). The existence of the soul in the earthly world is invariably aggravated by negative karma, leading to continuous suffering. The conditions for the new birth of a person or animal also depend on it.

Overcoming dark karma, breaking the vicious circle of samsara and achieving liberation (moksha) were considered the highest goals of religious practice and the meaning of human earthly life.

• Avatar - in the Indian religious tradition, the embodiment of the highest spiritual essence (God) in a human being.
• The Aryans, or Aryans, are highly developed tribes that conquered the native peoples of Hindustan in ancient times. It is assumed that they inhabited the vast expanses of Central Eurasia and migrated south (to the Hindustan Peninsula) and west (to Eastern Europe).

Indian civilization is one of the most ancient on the planet; it originated almost six thousand years ago on the Hindustan Peninsula on the banks of the Indus and Ganges rivers.

At the beginning of the 2nd millennium, India was invaded by warlike tribes of the Aryans, who had a fairly high level of development. They not only had war chariots, but also had poetic talent: they composed hymns and poems glorifying the heroic deeds of the Gods and heroes.

Any civilization is built on the material and spiritual culture of the people, their religious views and philosophical beliefs. The philosophy of Ancient India was based on Vedic literature, written in the most ancient written language - Sanskrit back in the 15th century BC. and, according to the Hindus, appeared out of nowhere and, therefore, had a divine origin.

The Indians could not be wrong, since they communicated the will of the Universe and observed the behavior of man in his earthly life.

The Vedas consisted of two parts: one part was intended only for initiates, familiar with the secrets of the Universe, the other was intended for a wide range of reading. The world-famous works “Mahabharta” and “Ramayana” belong to the second part and tell about the lives of the heroes.

The collection of hymns of the Rig Veda, also dating back to this time, was understandable and accessible only to adepts initiated into the secret language of symbols and signs. But it is this book that contains all the knowledge accumulated by that time about the world around us, about Gods and historical figures.

The purpose of this sacred collection was to appease the gods and win them over to the side of the ancient Aryans, praising their exploits, describing sacrifices, and then making requests and entreaties.

Sacred mantras still accompany Hindus throughout their lives. These sound combinations help achieve bliss, financial well-being, love and family harmony.

Law of world justice

One of the postulates of ancient Indian philosophy is the law of karma. Karma is a cause-and-effect relationship between past and future rebirths of the earthly state of each person. To achieve nirvana - the harmonious fusion of the human soul and the Cosmos, you need to go through a chain of earthly reincarnations, each time rising to a higher level of development of spirit and morality. But it is karma that is responsible for each subsequent earthly incarnation and how much it corresponds to a person’s behavior in a past life.

Indian philosophical schools are divided into two large groups: orthodox (developing only on the basis of the teachings of the Vedas) and heterodox.

Nyiya- the first of the orthodox schools believed that the world is material and cognizable by man with the help of his senses. But what cannot be known by sensory means does not exist, that is, in many ways the world is illusory.

There are only four sources of knowledge of the world: inference, the word of God, comparative analysis and perception.

Vaisesika- another orthodox school believed that there are two real worlds: the sensual and the super-sensible. The whole world consists of microscopic particles - atoms, and the space between them is filled with ether. The life force of the whole world is given by the giant Brahman, who appeared in this world at the behest of the Gods in order to create the world and everyone living in it.

This philosophical school preaches the eternal cycle of life (samsara - the wheel of eternal reincarnation), which consists of a chain of transformations and transition from one earthly shell to another. The soul, under the influence of reincarnation, is eternally moving and eternally seeking harmony in attempts to achieve the ideal.

This is probably why in Indian philosophy there is no fear of death as the cessation of a physical state, because life is eternal only in its various incarnations.

Yoga Teachings is a practical philosophy of understanding the world and establishing oneself in this world as a harmonious personality, capable of controlling one’s physical body with the help of the power of the spirit. Yoga recognized the power of the Absolute and viewed progress as an eternal movement towards a given goal. The basis of the teaching was the ability to subordinate the body to the brain.

Since yoga is, first of all, a practical philosophy, it is built on physical training that helps to find the ideal balance between soul and body, such exercises include:

• Breathing exercises,
• Having full concentration of spirit,
• Isolation of feelings from all external influences,
• Ability to concentrate on what is most important
• Elimination of harmful emotions that distract from the main thing,
• Concentrating thoughts and achieving harmony of body and spirit.

The teachings of heterodox schools are based on materialism. They consider the physical body as the basis of existence and recognize only one feeling - the feelings of the body, rejecting the ephemeral soul.

Teaches that the entire material world is made up of atoms, ever-moving indivisible particles of different weights. Moreover, the bodies of humans, animals, insects, and even all things consist of identical atoms, therefore there is no higher or lower form of life, everyone is equal in the face of nature and the Universe. The main dogma of Jainism was not to harm any living thing.

To reach the apogee in the teachings of Jainism was extremely difficult: for this it was necessary to refuse any bodily food and learn to feed on solar energy, be able to resist evil with non-violence and try not to cause any, even the slightest, harm to anything living.

But the main purpose of existence for all philosophical schools of Hindustan was to achieve nirvana – states of harmonious fusion with the Universe, lack of a sense of one’s own “I” as a separate personality, dissolution in the Absolute, loss of all sensations.

In addition to the eternal journey from body to body, trying to achieve moral perfection, meditation helps to achieve nirvana - complete concentration on one’s own inner “I”, complete detachment from both all external motivations and internal needs. At the same time, the meditator remains with a clear awareness of the existing world and complete equanimity.

If a person has achieved nirvana, he achieves the desired harmony with the Cosmos, breaks all physical ties with the world and stops the chain of rebirths. He reaches the Absolute - eternal non-corporeal existence.

India today is open to tourists and people interested in its unique spiritual culture, but, despite all its friendliness and affability, the inner spiritual world of this country remains incomprehensible and unknowable for people of other faiths, closed to other cultures, although tolerant of all beliefs existing on our planet.

The philosophy of Ancient India - briefly, the most important thing. This is another topic from a series of publications on the basics of philosophy. In the previous article we looked at. As already mentioned, the science of philosophy arose simultaneously in different parts of the world - in Ancient Greece and in Ancient India and China around the 7th-6th centuries. BC. Often the philosophies of Ancient India and Ancient China are considered together, since they are very related and had a great influence on each other. But still, I propose to consider the history of the philosophy of Ancient China in the next article.

The philosophy of Ancient India was based on the texts contained in the Vedas, which were written in the most ancient language - Sanskrit. They consist of several collections written in the form of hymns. It is believed that the Vedas were compiled over a period of thousands of years. The Vedas were used for religious service.

The first philosophical texts of India are the Upanishads (late 2nd millennium BC). The Upanishads are an interpretation of the Vedas.

Upanishads

The Upanishads formed the main Indian philosophical themes: the idea of ​​an infinite and one God, the doctrine of rebirth and karma. The One God is the incorporeal Brahman. Its manifestation – Atman – is the immortal, inner “I” of the world. The Atman is identical to the human soul. The goal of the human soul (the goal of the individual Atman) is to merge with the world Atman (the world soul). Anyone who lives in recklessness and impurity will not be able to achieve such a state and will enter the cycle of rebirth according to the cumulative result of his words, thoughts and actions, according to the laws of karma.

In philosophy, the Upanishads are ancient Indian treatises of a philosophical and religious nature. The most ancient of them date back to the 8th century BC. The Upanishads reveal the main essence of the Vedas, which is why they are also called “Vedanta”.

In them the Vedas received the greatest development. The idea of ​​connecting everything with everything, the theme of space and man, the search for connections, all this was reflected in them. The basis of everything that exists in them is the inexpressible Brahman, as the cosmic, impersonal principle and basis of the whole world. Another central point is the idea of ​​the identity of man with Brahman, of karma as the law of action and of samsara, like a circle of suffering that a person needs to overcome.

Philosophical schools (systems) of Ancient India

WITH 6th century BC The time of classical philosophical schools (systems) began. Distinguish orthodox schools(they considered the Vedas the only source of Revelation) and unorthodox schools(they did not recognize the Vedas as the only authoritative source of knowledge).

Jainism and Buddhism classified as heterodox schools. Yoga and Samkhya, Vaisheshika and Nyaya, Vedanta and Mimamsa- these are six orthodox schools. I listed them in pairs because they are pairwise friendly.

Unorthodox schools

Jainism

Jainism is based on the hermit tradition (6th century BC). The basis of this system is personality and it consists of two principles - material and spiritual. Karma binds them together.

The idea of ​​rebirth of souls and karma led the Jains to the idea that all life on Earth has a soul - plants, animals and insects. Jainism preaches such a life as not to harm all life on Earth.

Buddhism

Buddhism arose in the middle of the 1st millennium BC. Its creator was Gautama, a prince from India, who later received the name Buddha, which means awakened one. He developed the concept of a way to get rid of suffering. This should be the main goal of life for a person who wants to gain liberation and go beyond samsara, the cycle of suffering and pain.

To break out of the circle of suffering (enter nirvana) you need to observe 5 Commandments (Wikipedia) and engage in meditation, which calms the mind and makes one's mind clearer and free from desires. The extinction of desires leads to liberation and deliverance from the cycle of suffering.

Orthodox schools

Vedanta

Vedanta was one of the most influential schools of Indian philosophy. The exact time of its appearance is not known, approximately - 2nd century. BC e. The completion of the teaching dates back to the end of the 8th century AD. e. Vedanta is based on the interpretation of the Upanishads.

In it the basis of everything is Brahman, which is one and infinite. The Atman of man can know Brahman and then man can become free.

Atman is the highest “I”, the absolute, which is aware of its existence. Brahman is the cosmic, impersonal beginning of everything that exists.

Mimamsa

Mimamsa is adjacent to Vedanta and is a system that explained the rituals of the Vedas. The core was considered the idea of ​​duty, which represented the making of sacrifices. The school reached its culmination in the 7th-8th centuries. It had an impact on strengthening the influence of Hinduism in India and reducing the importance of Buddhism.

Sankhya

This is the philosophy of dualism founded by Kapila. There are two principles in the world: prakriti (matter) and purusha (spirit). According to it, the main basis of everything is matter. The goal of Samkhya philosophy is the abstraction of spirit from matter. It was based on human experience and reflection.

Sankhya and Yoga are connected. Samkhya is the theoretical basis for yoga. Yoga is a practical technique for achieving liberation.

Yoga

Yoga. This system is based on practice. Only through practical exercises can a person achieve reunification with the divine principle. A lot of such yoga systems have been created, and they are still very famous all over the world. It is this that has become most popular now in many countries, thanks to a set of physical exercises that make it possible to be healthy and not get sick.

Yoga differs from Samkhya in the belief that every person has a supreme personal Deity. With the help of asceticism and meditation, you can free yourself from prakriti (material).

Nyaya

Nyaya was a teaching about various forms of thinking, about the rules of discussion. Therefore, its study was mandatory for everyone who was engaged in philosophizing. The problems of existence in it were explored through logical comprehension. Man's main goal in this life is liberation.

Vaisesika

Vaisheshika is a school related to the Nyaya school. According to this system, every thing is constantly changing, although there are elements in nature that are not subject to change - these are atoms. An important topic of the school is to classify the objects in question.

Vaisheshika is based on the objective cognizability of the world. Adequate cognition is the main goal of systematic thinking.

Books on the philosophy of Ancient India

From Samkhya to Vedanta. Indian philosophy: darshans, categories, history. Chattopadhyaya D (2003). A professor at the University of Calcutta wrote this book especially for Europeans who are just beginning to become acquainted with the philosophy of Ancient India.

Six systems of Indian philosophy. Muller Max (1995). The Oxford University professor is an outstanding expert on Indian texts; he has translated the Upanishads and Buddhist texts. This book is referred to as a fundamental work on the philosophy and religion of India.

Introduction to Indian Philosophy. Chatterjee S and Dutta D (1954). The authors present the views of Indian philosophical schools briefly and in simple language.

The philosophy of Ancient India - briefly, the most important thing. VIDEO.

Summary

I think the article " Philosophy of Ancient India - briefly, the most important thing" became useful for you. You learned:

• about the main sources of the philosophy of Ancient India - the ancient texts of the Vedas and Upanishads;
• about the main classical schools of Indian philosophy - orthodox (yoga, Samkhya, Vaisheshika, Nyaya, Vedanta, Mimamsa) and heterodox (Jainism and Buddhism);
• about the main feature of the philosophy of the Ancient East - about understanding the true purpose of man and his place in the world (focus on the inner world was considered more important for a person than on the external circumstances of life).

I always wish everyone a positive attitude for all your projects and plans!

§ 1. Philosophy in Ancient India

The emergence of philosophy in Ancient India dates back to approximately the middle of the 1st millennium BC. e., when states began to form on the territory of modern India. At the head of each such state was a raja, whose power was based on the power of the landowning aristocracy and the tribal priestly nobility (Brahmins). The remnants of patriarchal relations between the ruling classes and the oppressed were strong.

Ancient Indian society was divided into varnas - groups that later formed the basis of the caste system. There were four of them: 1) priestly varna (brahmanas); 2) varna of the military aristocracy (kshatriyas); 3) varna of farmers, artisans, traders (vaishyas) and 4) lower varna (shudras). The Shudras were subordinate to the Brahmans, Kshatriyas, and Vaishyas; they did not have the right to community property, they were not accepted as members of the community, they did not participate in solving its affairs. The division into varnas was sanctified by religion. Noble priestly families had a significant influence on society and were carriers of education and special knowledge, influencing the development of religious ideology.

The oldest monument of Indian literature - Veda. The figurative language of the Vedas expresses a very ancient religious worldview, with which already at that time some philosophical ideas about the world, about man and about moral Life were combined. The Vedas are divided into four groups or parts. The oldest of them is the Samhitas. The works of the remaining groups are commentaries and additions to the Samhitas. The Samhitas consist of four collections. The earliest of these is the Rigveda, a collection of religious hymns (c. 1500 BC). The second part of the Vedas consists of the Brahmanas - a collection of ritual texts. The religion of Brahmanism, which dominated before the emergence of Buddhism, relied on them. The third part of the Vedas is the Aranyakas, which contain rules of conduct for hermits. The Vedas are completed by the Upanishads, the actual philosophical part, which arose around 1000 BC. e. Already during the period of dominance of religious and mythological views, reflected in the Vedas and the Upanishads, the first elements of philosophical consciousness arose and the formation of the first philosophical teachings, both idealistic and materialistic, began.

Ancient Indian philosophy is characterized by development within certain systems, or schools, and their division into two large groups: orthodox (recognizing the authority of the Vedas) and heterodox (not recognizing the authority of the Vedas). Most of them were orthodox and religious. These are the schools of Vedanta, Mimamsa, Samkhya, Yoga, Nyaya, Vaisheshika. However, in a number of these schools, a materialistic tendency emerges from under the external religious and ethical form. The heterodox schools include Jainism, Buddhism and the Lokayatika Charvaka school.

Jainism. As a result of the development of the ancient teachings of the “sages”, the philosophy of Jainism arose. The last in the line of “sages” is Vardhamana, who, according to legend, lived in the 6th century. BC e., received the nickname Winner - Gina. His followers came to be called Jains. Jainism in its main part is an ethical teaching that shows the path to “liberate” the soul from its subordination to passions. Such ethics have become traditional for a number of Indian systems. The goal of Jain philosophy is “holiness,” a special way of behavior through which said liberation is achieved. The source of wisdom in Jainism is not considered to be God, but special saints who have achieved strength and happiness on the basis of perfect knowledge and through behavior arising from this knowledge.

Jainism as an ethical teaching is based on a special doctrine of existence. According to this teaching, there are many things endowed with reality and possessing, on the one hand, permanent or substantial properties, and on the other, random or transitory properties. Among inanimate substances, matter (pudgala) is of particular importance. Matter appears either as divided into elements, then indivisible (into atoms), or as collected - in the form of a combination of atoms. In addition to matter, nonliving substances include space, time, conditions of motion and rest.

Jainism considers consciousness to be the main sign of the soul. The degree of consciousness varies in different souls. By its nature, the soul is perfect, and its possibilities are limitless: the soul has access to limitless knowledge, limitless power, and limitless happiness. But the soul tends to identify itself with the body. At every moment, the soul is the result of its entire past life - all its past actions, feelings and thoughts. The main reason that gives rise to the dependence of the soul is its strong desires, or passions. The cause of passions is ignorance of life. Therefore, knowledge must free the soul from matter. The condition for true knowledge is not only trust in the authority of teachers, but also correct behavior, the correct way of our actions. “Liberation”, which is the goal of the teachings of Jainism, should lead to the complete separation of soul from matter. This is achieved through asceticism.

Buddhism. In the VI–V centuries. BC e. The religious teaching of Buddhism arises, hostile to the ancient priestly religion of Brahmanism. Buddhism spread among the urban lower classes, where class contradictions were most acute.

The ruling classes, after some resistance, recognized and supported Buddhism based on their class interests. It was during this era that large states arose in India. Brahmanism defended the advantages of priests, while in Buddhism the anti-priestly tendency was strong. At the same time, the ideology of Buddhism demanded submission and reconciliation and therefore seemed not dangerous to the ruling class.

Buddhism, one of the world's religions, is on a par with Christianity and Islam. The teachings of Buddhism are based on the legend of the religion's founder, Prince Siddhartha, or Gautama Buddha. The life of Buddha dates back to the 6th century. BC e. Buddhist literature arose much later. The first attempt to systematize Buddhism was given in the so-called “Tripitaka” (“Three Baskets of Teachings”). The third of these books deals with philosophical issues. The religion of Buddhism spread to the east and south of India, Ceylon, Burma and Siam. Another branch of Buddhism established itself in Tibet, China and Japan.

Buddhism puts forward the following cornerstone provisions:. 1) life is full of suffering; 2) there is a cause for suffering; 3) there is a possibility of ending suffering; There is a path along which you can get rid of suffering. The necessity of suffering is derived from the conditionality and dependence of all events or facts. The very fact of birth inevitably entails a chain of suffering. Human life, his desire for pleasure is determined by sensory experience and is accompanied by suffering. The sages of Buddhism teach that the goal of knowledge is to liberate a person from suffering. The basis of the ethics of Buddhism is the conviction that deliverance from suffering is achievable not in the afterlife, but in the present life. This cessation of suffering is called nirvana by Buddhists. The literal meaning of this word is “quenched.” By nirvana, Buddhists understand a state of complete equanimity, liberation from everything that brings pain, distraction from the outside world, as well as from the world of thoughts.

Some provisions of Buddhist teaching are of interest from a philosophical point of view. Such are the doctrine of universal variability, the denial of the existence of the soul as a special entity and the recognition of the existence of only a stream of constantly changing states of consciousness.

The question of practical ways of ethical improvement is developed in Buddhism in great detail. This is the teaching of eight “virtues” that are achieved by those who follow this path. Virtues consist of right conduct, right living, right speech, right direction of thought, concentration or tranquility and equanimity.

The success of Buddhism was due to the fact that it was a “religion of salvation”, instilling in the souls of believers the hope that widespread suffering could be defeated and eliminated. Like all religions, Buddhism did not at all strive to eliminate the causes of suffering in real public life. He wasn't teaching struggle, and religion humility. In its further development, Buddhism was divided into a number of schools.

The beginning of ancient Indian materialism. Philosophy of Lokayata. It is not easy to judge the first teachings of ancient Indian philosophy, since the works, especially the works of materialist philosophers, have been lost, and reports about the ancient teachings coming from later idealists are greatly distorted.

The oldest materialist philosophical movement in India was the doctrine of Lokayata (or Charvaka). The Lokayata denied the existence of any world other than the material. The lokayata philosophy apparently arose in the era when the ancient clan system was replaced in India by the state and when, along with the ancient varnas of warriors and clergy (Brahmins), the varna of traders began to rise, and free peasants and artisans began to emerge from the farmers.

According to the Lokayata doctrine of existence, the whole world consists of material elements. Apart from these primary elements and the laws of their combinations, there is no other reality. Belief in the existence of God, soul, heaven, and the afterlife is false, and the objects of this belief are inaccessible to perception. The things of nature consist of air (or winds), fire (or light), water and earth. After death, organisms decompose again into their original elements. Consciousness, according to this teaching, exists in reality and is verified by perception. However, consciousness cannot be a property of a spiritual and immaterial entity; it is a property of a living material body. The personality is inseparable from the body.

Ethics is also built on the basis of the doctrine of being in the Lokayata philosophy. A person experiences both pleasure and suffering. It is impossible to completely eliminate suffering, but you can reduce it to a minimum and maximize pleasure. As for the usual ethical concepts of virtue and vice, they are an invention of the authors of the sacred books. The same fiction of hell, heaven and the entire ritual of sacrifice.

Subsequently, an element of skepticism penetrates into the teachings of the Lokayata, which consists in abstaining from judgment on questions to which there are mutually exclusive answers.

Systems based on the Vedas: Mimamsa and Vedanta. In ancient Indian philosophy there are systems that are directly based on the Vedas. In these systems, the texts of the Vedas are considered sacred books, like the Hebrew Bible and New Testament Christian literature. These systems are Mimamsa and Vedanta. For them, the Vedas are an indisputable authority.

A distinctive feature of Mimamsa is that, being a teaching whose goal is to justify the Vedic ritual, Mimamsa paid great attention to issues of the theory of knowledge and logic. She views sensory perception as a special source of knowledge. Objects of perception are characterized as real and possessing various objective characteristics. In addition to perception, the sources of knowledge are considered to be logical inference, comparison, the authoritative testimony of sacred books and the recognition of certain imperceptible truths as postulates.

The idealistic teaching of Vedanta was first systematically developed by Badarayana. There were various shades in this teaching, due to differences in understanding the relationship between the soul and God. The most extreme views were: 1) the view according to which the soul and God are completely different, and 2) the view according to which they are completely one. The first doctrine was defended Madhva, second - Shankara. Vedanta requires that the student obediently follow the teacher initiated into the wisdom of Vedanta, and practice constant reflection on its truths until he achieves direct and, moreover, constant contemplation of the truth.

According to Vedanta, the soul bound to its body is not free, it craves sensual pleasures and experiences a long series of reincarnations. Victory over ignorance, which enslaves the soul, is achieved by studying Vedanta. Being a system of objective idealism, Vedanta leads to mysticism, to contemplation, to the renunciation of struggle and to the subordination of philosophical teachings to religion.

Samkhya philosophy. A very ancient form of philosophy in India was the Samkhya doctrine. Its founder Ka-saw lived, according to some sources, around 600 BC. e.

The Samkhya teaching presupposes two principles: material and spiritual. To explain the world, Samkhya considers the concept of the material root cause of all things and phenomena, including mental phenomena, to be the initial one. The primary cause, being material, must at the same time be so subtle and all-pervasive that even the most subtle creations, such as the mind, are possible. The first cause cannot be generated by any cause that precedes it. She is the eternal self-cause, the eternal foundation of the whole world. Without exception, all objects are capable of causing us either pleasure, or pain, or an indifferent state. The cause of these states is the three components of objects, which are called gunas and which are not directly perceived. Not only the primary substance - prakriti - consists of these three components, but also all things in the world. Prakriti is the cause of the existence of bodies, organs of feeling and action, the sense of “I”, mind and intellect. But beyond all this there is consciousness; it is above all changes and by its nature is already immaterial. The entire multitude of objects in the real world arises after the material cause - prakriti - comes into contact with purusha, or "I". Coming from prakriti, the mind is not eternal, it is complex and is a subject that arises and collapses in time. From this doctrine of being, Samkhya philosophy derives the doctrine of knowledge. In addition to perception and logical conclusion, Samkhya also recognizes the teachings (“testimony”) of the ancient sacred books - the Vedas - as a source of knowledge. Reliable knowledge arises when the intellect reflects not the object, but consciousness itself, or the “I”.

The premise of Samkhya ethics is the belief in the universality of suffering. Samkhya philosophy, like a number of other schools of ancient Indian philosophy, considers the main task of wisdom to be knowledge of the path and means leading to the complete liberation of a person from suffering and misfortune.

Yoga system. In many respects, the yoga system was close to the Samkhya system. The word "yoga" seems to mean "concentration." The sage is considered the founder of yoga Patanjali.

In the yoga system, faith in God is considered as an element of the theoretical worldview and as a condition for successful practical activity aimed at liberation from suffering. Among the means that yoga recommends for liberation, some relate to the practice of asceticism, some to the principles of ethics based on compassion for all forms and species of life. The rules of yoga contain a number of rational, to a certain extent tested by experience, prescriptions related to respiratory hygiene, diet, etc. The system of yoga prescriptions also includes the requirement to worship God. This is an important difference between yoga and the atheistic Samkhya system.

Nyaya materialistic system. The founder of Nyaya is considered to be the sage Gotama(or Gautama). The most ancient texts of the school date back to the 3rd century. BC e., the rest were written no earlier than the first centuries of our era. Nyaya philosophy is a doctrine of knowledge, in particular of logical inference, developed on the basis of the materialistic theory of being. The Nyaya theory of existence is intended to serve not a theoretical, but a practical task - the liberation of man from all suffering. Nyaya philosophy examines the sources and methods of knowledge, classifies objects of knowledge, reality itself. True knowledge can be attained either through perception, or through logical inference, or through evidence (authority), or through comparison. Perception is caused by the senses and gives direct knowledge about the subject. Logical cognition requires the isolation of a feature that is inseparable from the object being cognized.

In general, Nyaya philosophy is naive and materialistic. Both in origin and in content, it makes truth dependent on the real nature of cognizable objects. An object exists before knowledge about it. Subsequently, elements of religion and idealistic psychology penetrated into this basic materialist content.

Vaisheshika materialistic system. One of the most mature systems of ancient Indian materialism is the Vaisheshika system. The name of the school comes from the word “visesha”, meaning “peculiarity”, and indicates that for Vaisesika, in explaining reality, the category of specific differences between substances, atoms, souls, etc. is of paramount importance. Vaisesika arose approximately in the 6th–5th centuries. BC e. Its founder is considered Canada. Vaisheshika philosophy arose initially as a materialist doctrine of existence and the theory of atomism. Subsequently, questions of logic were included in the range of questions of Vaisheshika.

Like Nyaya, Vaisheshika sees the goal of wisdom as the liberation of the human “I” from suffering and dependence. The final cause of suffering is ignorance. The path to liberation lies through knowledge, that is, through true comprehension of reality. Such knowledge presupposes the study of the categories of reality, that is, the highest kinds of being. A category is not a concept of the mind, but primarily an object designated by a term. Therefore, the classification of categories coincides with the classification of objects, or objects.

The material carrier of all qualities of things, features, Actions, as well as the cause of everything complex is substance. Of the various kinds of substances, the following five - earth, water, light, air and ether - constitute the physical elements, which themselves are composed of eternal, indivisible atoms. They are imperceptible to the senses, and we become aware of their existence only through inference. A characteristic feature of the Vaisheshika teaching about atoms is the recognition of the qualitative difference between them. Qualities, unlike properties, are considered as something primordial. Movement is not a quality, but a property, since it is transmitted from one object to another. There cannot be movement and action in incorporeal substances; such substances are ether, space, time and soul.

The Vaisheshika system considers the universal and the particular to be important categories for cognition. Having a common nature, things of a certain class also receive a common name. The general is real, located in the objects of a given class themselves, but is not identical with their individual properties, it is the essence of individual objects. But if only the universal existed, it would be impossible to distinguish one substance from another, since each substance has something that belongs to it alone. This is the peculiarity. Since substances are eternal, their characteristics are also eternal.

Subsequently, some teachers of this school began to assert that all the actions of atoms go back to the will of a supreme being, who directs everything towards moral purification, that the emerging world is endowed with a world soul and that all beings suffering in it, after a certain repeating cycle, are freed from suffering. The condition for this liberation is the destruction of the world and the atomic compounds existing in it.

Over time, the religious overtones of Vaisheshika philosophy intensified. The later teachers of the Vaisheshika school began to consider atoms only as material the cause of the world, and effective God was declared the cause of the world.

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