Geopolitical problems of Spain. Foreign policy of the new Spanish government

The territory of Spain is 504.78 thousand km². Population - 39.6 million people. The capital is Madrid (about 5 million inhabitants). The country is a constitutional monarchy. The Constitution was adopted in 1978. The King is Juan Carlos I of Bourbon. The country consists of 17 autonomous regions and 50 provinces. Owns the cities of Ceuta and Melilla (Morocco).

Economic-geographical and political-geographical position of the country

Spain is the second largest country in Western Europe after France. It is located in the extreme southwest of the European continent and occupies most of the Iberian, or Iberian, Peninsula. Relatively low, but inaccessible mountains - the Pyrenees separate the peninsula from the rest of Europe. The country's northern land border runs along the watershed ridge. Climbing high into the mountains, you can clearly see the green valley of the Garrona River and the snow-white French villages along its banks. In the Pyrenees, between Spain and France, is one of the smallest countries in the world, Andorra. In the west, Spain borders Portugal.

In terms of length, more than half of the country's borders are maritime. The south and east are washed by the Mediterranean Sea, the northwest and southwest by the vast Atlantic Ocean. In the Mediterranean Sea are the Balearic Islands, which belong to Spain, and in the Atlantic Ocean, off the coast of Africa, are the Canary Islands. spain geographical economy economics

Spain's exceptionally advantageous strategic position between Europe and North Africa, the Mediterranean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean has always played a large role in its history. It is no coincidence that the world owes Spain the greatest geographical discoveries. Five centuries ago, the fearless adventurer Christopher Columbus set out on his voyages here, which marked the discovery of the New World and the beginning of the conquest - the conquest and colonization of America. And now the shortest sea routes from Europe to the Americas originate off the coast of the Iberian Peninsula. In the south of Spain there is Cape Marroqui (30°00"N and 5°37"W) - the southernmost point of mainland Europe. The narrow Strait of Gibraltar separates the Iberian Peninsula from Africa. Much blood was shed for the possession of the strait - Spanish, Arab, English, French. As an echo of the former struggle for the strait, there is still a British naval and air base - Gibraltar - near Cape Marroqui.

Introduction

In this course work we will look at the tenth country in the world in terms of industrial power - Spain. In terms of economic development, it belongs to the moderately developed industrial countries. Let us pay attention to the geographical and geopolitical position of the country, its natural conditions and resources, historical and geographical features, political system, population, characterize the economy of Spain, foreign economic relations, regional differences, and also pay great attention to tourism. Spain is a major tourist power in the world.

The country is located in the European region. And although Europe is not a continent, but a very strongly dissected western part of the largest continent on Earth - Eurasia, they are accustomed to viewing it separately. This is due to historical, cultural and economic characteristics, the outstanding role of the European region over many centuries.

Europe is the center of Western civilization. From here it spread, “continued” to other continents of the Earth - North America, Australia, and partially South America.

Modern American political scientist S. Huntington noted that the most important dividing line in Europe can be the eastern border. This line runs along the current border between Finland and Russia, between the Baltic states and Russia, cuts through Belarus and Ukraine, goes west, separating Transylvania from the rest of Romania, and then through Yugoslavia almost exactly along the line that now separates Croatia and Slovenia from the rest of the territory Yugoslavia. In the Balkans, this line practically coincides with the historical border between the Habsburg and Ottoman empires. (10.343).

The “sacred stones of Europe” are world famous; they attract millions of tourists from all over the world. It is no coincidence that the top three places in world tourism are occupied by Spain, France and Italy.

Geographical and geopolitical location

The state occupies over 4/5 of the Iberian Peninsula in southwestern Europe, as well as the Balearic Islands in the Mediterranean Sea and the Canary Islands in the Atlantic Ocean. Total area - 506 thousand square meters. km. Spain includes the cities of Ceuta and Melilla on the northern coast of Africa with adjacent small islands (8,105) 1 .

High mountains - the Pyrenees - separate the peninsula from the rest of Europe. The northern land border of the country runs along the watershed ridge, here it borders with France and the microstate of Andorra, in the west with Portugal, in the southeast with Gibraltar - an English possession on the shore of the Strait of Gibraltar. In terms of length, more than half of the borders are maritime. Spain's important nodal position between Europe and North Africa, the Mediterranean and the Atlantic has always played a major role in its history. It was the Spaniards who made many great geographical discoveries.

Currently, the Iberian Peninsula is connected by the shortest sea and air routes to America. In the south of the country there is Cape Marroki - the southernmost point of all of Europe. The Strait of Gibraltar, which has enormous shipping importance, separates the Iberian Peninsula from Africa.

In relation to the center of Europe, Spain's position appears peripheral, which hampered its development in certain historical periods. And now the country is a periphery of the EU. The largest port and industrial cities of the north and northeast are located away from the most important centers of Europe and world sea routes. Proximity to North Africa and the Middle East with their huge oil and gas resources contributed to the creation of large coastal industrial complexes in the south of the country based on imported fuel.

Spain is located southwest of all the polluting industrial centers of Europe, so western air transport saves it from the “import” of transboundary pollution (10,478-479) 1.

"Kosovo virus" begins to spread across the continent

All. Disintegration processes began in Europe. Apparently, it was the intention of the United States and the European Union to see Kosovo as an “independent and democratic state” that gave rise to separatist tendencies in many countries of the Old World. Belgium remains without a government for almost six months; negotiations between Flemish politicians and the Walloons have not led to agreement; the authorities fear the state will split into two parts. Against this background, events in Spain look inconspicuous. But only for now.

Today, many public and political figures and even organizations in Spain, speaking from separatist positions, have become more active. We are talking, first of all, about Catalonia, an autonomous region in the northeast of the country. It is generally accepted that the greatest danger to the unity of the Spanish kingdom comes from the Basques, more specifically from the notorious ETA. Indeed, an organization that openly demands the secession of the Basque Country and has adopted terrorism in order to achieve this goal is a serious headache for Madrid. But the Catalans pose a much more serious problem for the central authorities.
Yes, there is peace and tranquility in Catalonia. They don’t kidnap entrepreneurs and political figures, and don’t demand fabulous sums for their release under the guise of a so-called “revolutionary tax.” There is no bloodshed, no explosions, and if they do, it is the work of militants from the same ETA. The extremist organization that existed in Catalonia, vaguely reminiscent of the Basque separatists, dissolved itself long ago.

But this does not mean that the Catalans do not cause serious trouble to the central authorities. Barcelona just behaves slightly differently towards them.

She acts more subtly, but much more persistently and consistently than the Basques, and, I must say, is far from unsuccessful.
The most important thing is that this process is not led by any separate organization or party, but by the local government - the Generalitat - and parliament. Equally important is that their efforts enjoy the support of the majority of residents of the region. The talk, however, is not yet about secession from the state, but only about greater - emphasis on the first syllable - benefits and powers for oneself. But if these benefits and powers are granted to the Catalans, the role of the “center” will sharply weaken, and the state will turn from a unitary one, as provided for by the constitution of the kingdom, into a federal one.
Thus, Barcelona demands that it be given the right to determine its own tax policy. At the same time, she appeals to one important, from her point of view, circumstance: Catalonia is the richest region in Spain. Just over six million people live here, that is, 17 percent of the country's population. Its “contribution” is about 25 percent of the country’s gross domestic product. Madrid, which ranks second in this indicator, provides only 17 percent. Catalonia provides the country with half of the chemical industry's output. Barcelona and Tarragona are known as major Spanish ports and centers of the textile industry. It is famous for tourism and winemaking. Catalonia is, finally, an important financial center, with its main banks constantly and successfully competing with the capital's banks for dominance of the financial market, and some of them also operate in Madrid. In 2004, this region accounted for more than 20 percent of all capital investments, while the capital accounted for 15 percent.
It is no coincidence that the Catalans believe that they “feed” almost the entire country. And they not only believe, but also oppose this situation, believing that they themselves must determine what percentage of tax contributions should go to the “common pot” and what percentage should remain in Barcelona.
To this we can add that Catalonia is the largest cultural center not only in Spain, but also in Europe. Barcelona, for example, is rightfully considered the publishing capital of the Old World, with more than 400 publishing houses operating here. Far beyond the region, such Catalans are known as the artists Salvador Dali, Joan Miró, Antonio Tapies, the unique architect Antoni Gaudi, the composer and cellist Pablo Casals, the prima donna of the world opera Montserrat Caballe, one of the best tenors of our time José Carreras, and the formation Pablo Picasso as a painter took place in Barcelona. Here are not all the names, but even a short list of them gives an idea of the level of contemporary art and culture in Catalonia.

Moreover, former head of government Jordi Pujol, a convinced and incorrigible nationalist, for example, argued: “We are more than a region. We are a country."

He demanded either the creation of his own tax department in Catalonia, or the transfer to local authorities of the functions of the state department of taxes, participation in the distribution of funds from national social insurance and unemployment funds. He believed that one hundred percent of the tax revenues in this area should remain in Barcelona. “This restores historical and economic justice for Catalonia,” Pujol argued.
“It is absolutely wrong to solve this problem in terms of financial balance, how much does this or that region send to the state budget, and how much remains after that, since the regions are not autonomous financially, but form a unified system of financing the entire country,” commented proposal of the Catalan leader and then deputy head of government Rodrigo Rato. But he stuck to his guns, based on the postulate “He who owns finances has power.”
In the end, this dispute was resolved in a very peculiar way: the Catalan parliament, despite the objections of Madrid, unilaterally adopted the Basic Law of the region - a kind of constitution - expanding the rights of autonomy and designed to replace the current one, adopted in 1979. Moreover, the voting results turned out to be more than impressive: 120 were “for” and only 15 were “against”. In addition to changing tax legislation, the Catalans also demanded that they be given the opportunity to change in their interests the laws adopted by the Cortes General - the name of the bicameral parliament of Spain - to control ports and airfields, as well as the customs service, to independently determine measures to combat illegal immigration and conditions for legal immigration.
However, the main thing is that the adoption of the new constitution of Catalonia is illegal and contrary to the Basic Law of the country. At the same time, in the bill submitted to the Cortes General, Catalonia and the Catalans are defined as “a nation within the multinational state of Spain.” This, according to lawyers, actually changes the current single structure of the state to a federation with a new concept of territorial community. Needless to say, this Barcelona initiative did not meet with the approval of official Madrid.
Moreover, the army spoke out against the law, in fact for the first time since the attempted military coup on February 23, 1981, openly undertaking a political demarche and thereby violating the Constitution of the country. Thus, the chief of the general staff of the armed forces of the kingdom, General Felix Sanz Roldan, said: “The military is concerned about the initiative of Catalonia and supports the indivisibility of Spain.” In turn, the commander of the ground forces, Lieutenant General José Mena Aguado, noted that the Spanish army is “ready to intervene in the political situation if the fundamental law of any of the Spanish autonomies comes into conflict with the Constitution of the country.” He explained his tough position with the corresponding article of the Basic Law. “The armed forces, consisting of the ground forces, the air force and the navy,” the general noted, “are obliged to guarantee the sovereignty and independence of Spain, protect its integrity and ensure strict adherence to the Constitution.”
As a result, a compromise was reached between the Spanish government and the political parties of the autonomy. As a concession, Catalonia was given greater economic freedoms. Instead, the term “nation” in relation to the Catalans is removed from the text of the document itself, but appears in its preamble. Along with this, Barcelona is making a new move - for the future. The Catalan government is holding a referendum to gain support from its residents. And he succeeds in this to the fullest extent: 74 percent of Catalans who came to the ballot boxes were in favor of granting their region expanded autonomy. The next step is next. This time - a plebiscite on the complete independence of Catalonia, which the nationalists intend to hold before 2014.
The constitution of the kingdom does not provide for the possibility of secession of its individual regions from the state. Therefore, Madrid does not recognize such referendums. At least for now. Well, what if the majority of the population of a particular region nevertheless speaks out in support of independence? How then should the “center” react?

The problem is that in this case the “domino principle” may work: the confrontation between Barcelona and Madrid is being closely watched in other autonomous regions, which are also ready to begin the procedure of “updating” their constitutions with corresponding consequences for the integrity of the country.

In short, as former Prime Minister and one of the leaders of the conservative People's Party, José Maria Aznar, recently stated, “Spain is teetering on the edge of an abyss, on the verge of complete dismemberment.”
To understand the origins of the events taking place today on the Iberian Peninsula, a short excursion into history is necessary. Article 2 of the country's Basic Law states: “The Constitution is based on the inviolable unity of the Spanish nation, a single and indivisible homeland for all Spaniards. It recognizes and guarantees the right to autonomy for the nationalities and regions that constitute it, as well as solidarity between them.”
But in reality, this country is extremely diverse in terms of its ethnic composition. A Catalan or a resident of Euskadi - the Basque Country - will never call himself a Spaniard. However, like a resident of Valencia or Galicia, the Balearic or Canary archipelagos. This situation is due mainly to historical reasons. For centuries, Spain was literally pieced together. When the Catholic kings - the married couple Isabella of Castile and Ferdinand of Aragon - began to put together this multinational mosaic, they were hampered for a long time by the difference in morals, culture, customs, dialects and even languages. Many of these features have survived to this day, becoming one of the reasons for the hostility that still exists in relations between the Spanish provinces.
This hostility was aggravated by the fact that official Madrid for many years pursued a discriminatory policy towards certain regions, primarily Catalonia and the Basque Country. This was especially true for the nearly forty-year dictatorship of Franco, who sought to knock the very idea of autonomy out of the minds of the Basques and Catalans. Meanwhile, both of them knew about her firsthand. Back in 1425, Vizcaya received autonomy. Then the same right was granted to Gipuzkoa and Alava - these three provinces are now part of Euskadi. As for Catalonia, there were periods in its history when it was independent. By the middle of the 14th century, its influence extended to the Balearic Islands, southern France, Sicily, Corsica, Malta and Naples. However, a century later, having lost its former power, it became one of the regions of Spain. These regions either had autonomy or lost it at the will of the authorities.
On June 18, 1937, Franco captured the north of the country, and on June 23, a decree followed that eliminated the autonomy of the Basque Country. This was a kind of revenge for the courageous resistance that the Basques showed to the rebels. From this point on, about two million Basques were the most oppressed nation in Spain. Caudillo subjected them to various economic sanctions, prohibited them from publishing newspapers, publishing magazines and literature, and teaching in their native language. It got to the point that parents did not have the right to call their children Basque names. In 1939, a new decree, unique in its kind, appeared. He declared the entire population of Vizcaya and Gipuzkoa “traitors to the nation.” Prohibitory measures, albeit of a milder nature, were also taken against Catalonia and even Galicia, which, by the way, is Franco’s homeland.
Quite naturally, the process of democratization that began in Spain after the death of the dictator was unthinkable without solving such a delicate problem as autonomy. In 1979, the Catalans and Basques once again received the corresponding status. Other areas traditionally considered calm also began to stir. The autonomy virus affected not only large regions - Andalusia, Galicia, Castile, Valencia or Extremadura, but also individual provinces - Madrid, Murcia, La Rioja. In the end, the authorities were forced to give in to them. Result: in the relatively small territory of Spain there are now 17 autonomous regions. True, their level of independence is different, which cannot but cause dissatisfaction in the disadvantaged areas. However, the “process” has begun, and it is difficult to say today how it will end.
But it’s easy to give an assessment: the “Kosovo virus” is beginning to spread across the entire continent. The European Union and the United States are getting today what they wanted. Don't say they weren't warned...

Madrid - Moscow

Introduction

1. Geographical and geopolitical location

2. Natural conditions and resources

3. Historical and geographical features

4. Government structure

5. Population

6. Farm characteristics

7. Industry

8. Mechanical engineering

9. Transport

10. Foreign economic relations

11. Tourism

12. Signs and symbols of Spain

13. Spain is different

Conclusion

Bibliography

Introduction

Europe is the center of Western civilization. From here it spread, “continued” to other continents of the Earth - North America, Australia, and partially South America.

1. Geographical and geopolitical location

Spain is located southwest of all the polluting industrial centers of Europe, so western air transport saves it from the “import” of transboundary pollution (10,478-479) 1.

2. Natural conditions and resources

Spain is characterized by exceptional natural diversity. On the Iberian Peninsula there are mountains covered with moist broad-leaved and coniferous forests, dry steppes located on plateaus. The landscapes of the north and south, coastal and inland areas differ from each other. Plains occupy only 10% of the territory, the rest is made up of hills, plateaus and mountains. There are many large mountain ranges - the Pyrenees, the Catalan Mountains, the Cantabrian Mountains (in the north), the Iberian Mountains, the Cordillera Central, the Toledo Mountains (in the center), the Cordillera Betica, the Sierra Nevada, the Sierra Morena (in the south). One of the peaks of the Sierra Nevada is Mount Mulacén (3478 m) - the highest point in Spain. The Central Cordillera crosses from west to east a vast plateau - the Meseta. Lowlands are located on the periphery of the country. The Andalusian region is the most important breadbasket of Spain, the narrow Valencian and Murcian regions are a citrus growing area.

The Spanish mountains are rich in ore minerals. Some of the world's richest deposits of copper pyrite, lead, zinc, and manganese ores have been discovered in the Sierra Morena Mountains. Spain ranks first in the world in terms of mercury reserves. Almaden, the largest deposit of this metal, has been developed since ancient times. In the north, in Galicia, there is another ore belt with deposits of tungsten and tin, in Asturias, Leon, and the Basque Country - deposits of iron and coal - a successful territorial combination for metallurgical production. The country also has reserves of bauxite, gold, silver, titanium, molybdenum, and uranium. In a number of areas, small oil fields (Burgos, Catalonia) and gas (Cadiz, Basque Country, Aragon) are exploited. The country has 20% of Western European reserves of potassium salts; there are also deposits of table salt, kaolin, and refractory clays. Building materials include a lot of gypsum, marble, and basalts.

Characteristic for Spain climatic contrasts. Most of its territory is located in the subtropical Mediterranean climate. To the north lies “wet Spain,” which receives heavy rainfall in both winter and summer. Over two thirds of the territory is “dry Spain”. Insufficient rainfall (300-800 mm) in some areas determines the need for irrigation. The abundance of days with high temperatures is extremely favorable for agriculture (10, 480) 1 . The country has rich agricultural resources. Livestock and poultry farming account for 40% of the cost of agricultural products, horticulture and viticulture - 35%, and the grain sector - 25%. (8,107) 2. Spain occupies one of the first places in the world in the production of olives and olive oil, the harvesting of grapes and citrus fruits, the production of grape wines, and is the largest exporter of subtropical horticultural products and olive oil, acting as a competitor to French and Italian farms in the EU market. It is among the top ten countries for catching and processing fish. But at the same time, agriculture does not satisfy the country’s needs for livestock products, grain, and a number of industrial crops.

Spain has 25.6 million hectares of agricultural area, and its serious problem is water supply. Irrigated areas are located in river valleys and are called “huertas”. Large spaces are occupied by “secano” - unirrigated land with crops and olive trees.

Spain specializes in the production of olives, citrus fruits, fruits and vegetables, especially the early ones. Currently, there is strong competition for olive oil on the world market from sunflower and rapeseed oil.

Citrus fruits are produced in the Levant, Andalusia and the Balearic Islands. Spain is the first in Europe to produce oranges. Pomegranates and almonds are grown in Valencia and Extremadura, dates - in areas of the city of Elche. Apple and pear orchards are located in northern Spain. Extremadura is a producer of a variety of vegetables and fruits - peppers, garlic, beans, asparagus, cherries, etc. Tomatoes are produced in Murcia and Alicante, onions in Valencia, and early potatoes in Extremadura. Bananas, mangoes and avocados are grown in the Canary Islands.

Vineyards are the third crop in area after grain and olive plantations. They are everywhere except the northwest. The main regions are Castile-La Mancha, La Rioja and Andalusia. With Spain's accession to the EU, international competition in wine production has become more intense. The country produces 3.8 million hectoliters of wine, ranking third in the world by this indicator.

The productivity of rice crops in Spain is one of the first in the world. There is not enough grain to meet the country's needs, so Spain is forced to import it: wheat imports account for 45%, and corn - 72.5% of the country's harvest. The average wheat yield is 2.5 times lower than in France or Germany, which is explained by the relatively low level of farming. Barley, rye and oats are grown in the north of the Meseta. Among industrial crops, cotton, tobacco, esparto (a jute substitute), sugar beet, and sunflower play a significant role. There is a shortage of cotton and it is imported.

The northwestern regions specialize in livestock farming, which is not a strong sector of Spanish agriculture. The best meadows and pastures are located in “wet” Spain in Cantabria, the Basque Country, and Lugo. Cattle are raised in the northern regions, meat and dairy cattle are raised in areas of intensive farming. Galicia accounts for almost half of all milk production. Milk yield per cow is much lower than in leading European countries. The importance of pig and poultry farming is increasing.

The Spanish fishing fleet occupies one of the leading positions in the EU. Up to 1.3 million tons of fish are caught, but imports greatly exceed exports. The main fishing ports are located in Galicia - Vigo, Riveira, La Coruña. A major fishing port is Pasajes on the shores of the Bay of Biscay. Fishing is also developing in the Canary Islands. Fish processing centers - Vigo, La Coruña, El Ferrol. (10.493) 1 .

Basic rivers countries - Duero, Tajo, Guadiana, Guadalquivir, Ebro, Minho. Their economic importance is great as sources of cheap electricity, water supply, irrigation, and negligible as transport routes. Large reserves of groundwater compensate for the lack of surface water. Water resources are distributed unevenly: in the north-west there is a surplus, and in the east and south-east there is a shortage. The problem of transferring water from one basin to another is being solved. There is an acute issue about the cleanliness of rivers - they, especially the Guadalquivir, are polluted by waste from agricultural production and the food industry.

Sandy and pebble beaches, mainly in the coastal areas from Girona to Malaga, a sunny climate, more than two thousand mineral water springs, and the magnificent nature of the mountain ranges are conducive to the development of tourism. Now there are almost no areas of untouched nature left on Spanish territory. Where they are still preserved - mainly in hard-to-reach places - nature reserves and national parks have been created (10,480) 1.

3. Historical and geographical features

The beginning of the formation of Spain as a single centralized state and nation dates back to 1479, when during the reconquista (reconquest of lands from the Arabs) the unification of two feudal kingdoms took place - Castile and Aragon. The Arab era had a beneficial effect on the development of agriculture: rice, grapes, and sugar cane crops were introduced. (8,106) 2.

In the 16th century Spain reached its greatest prosperity. The Spaniards played an exceptional role in the Age of Discovery. The discovery and conquest of America contributed to the enrichment of Spain and economic growth. But this period turned out to be short-lived, because... American gold and silver depreciated, saturating the entire Mediterranean and Europe, and this led to the decline of the former Spanish power.

Capitalism in agrarian Spain developed with a significant delay compared to the leading countries of Europe. By the beginning of the 20th century. Spain lost almost all of its colonies and became poor and backward.

In the period 1936-1939. the country experienced a bloody civil war, at the end of which the reactionary Franco regime at that time was established. During World War II, Spain declared its neutrality, although several of its so-called blue divisions were sent against the USSR. In 1945, Francoist Spain did not join the UN, and later was not included in the number of countries receiving assistance under the Marshall Plan, which hampered its economic development. In the early 1950s. Spain was similar to some developing countries - the modest demands of the population and the archaic social structure caused economic lag.

In the 1960s Spain gradually emerged from isolation - it joined the UN and the IMF; strengthened economic openness and took first place in Europe in terms of production growth rates. After Franco's death in 1976. The country has embarked on the path of democratic development. Since 1986 it is a member of the EU. In 1994, the Economic and Financial Convergence Program was adopted, providing for large-scale structural restructuring of the economy in order to increase its competitiveness.

As a result of a long process of economic and social development in Spain, the following have developed:

· Areas of predominantly industrial development (Madrid, Catalonia, Asturias, Cantabria, Basque Country);

· Areas of predominantly agricultural development (Galicia, Castile-Leon, Extremadura, Murcia);

· Intensive development of the service sector is typical for Madrid, the Basque Country, Andalusia, and the Balearic Islands;

· Areas of greatest concentration of population are Madrid, coastal areas of the Mediterranean, the Basque Country and western Galicia. (10,482) 1

4. Government structure

Parliamentary monarchy, the head of state is the king. He approves all laws, nominates the Prime Minister to Parliament, and is the Supreme Commander-in-Chief. The throne is inherited through the direct male line (if the king has no sons, a woman can ascend the throne). If the heir marries without the consent of the king and parliament, he will lose the right to the throne. (1.70) 1 . Legislative and control functions over the activities of the government are assigned to the parliament (General Cortes), consisting of two chambers and elected for 4 years - the Senate (256 deputies) and the Congress of Deputies (350 seats). The highest executive body is the government, headed by its chairman. Administratively, the country is divided into 17 autonomous communities and 2 autonomous cities (Ceuta Melilla). Each autonomous community consists of one or more provinces, with a total of 52 provinces. Each community has its own parliament and government with broad powers in the fields of culture, health and education. The economic rights of autonomies are expanding. The capital is Madrid (3.2 million inhabitants, 2003). Other large cities are Barcelona (1.8 million people), Valencia (about 800 thousand people), Seville (750 thousand people), Zaragoza (604 thousand people), Malaga (531 thousand people). ), Bilbao (354 thousand people). (8,105-106) 2.

5. Population

Population - about 41 million people. (2003), its average annual growth rate in the 90s. amounted to 0.2%. Although the constitution recognizes Spain as a single nation, it has different ethnic groups: Castilians (11%), Catalans (16%), Andalusians (15%), Valencians (10%), Galicians (7%), Basques (6%) . Over 2.5 million Spaniards live outside Spain. However, the influx of immigrants is also large (850 thousand). Life expectancy is 79 years (75 years for men, 83 years for women). Infant mortality is 4.99 per 1000 inhabitants. 99% of believers are Catholics. The official language is Spanish. Level and system of education. Education is predominantly public, four levels: preschool, compulsory secondary (from 6 to 16 years), optional special (from 16 to 18 years), university. Adult literacy is 98%. Expenditures on education in GDP amount to 6% (2002), (8.105) 1. Population density on average 79 people. per 1 sq. km. The valleys of the Ebro and Guadalquivir rivers have increased population densities due to intensive agriculture. The urban population is 76%. Spain is inhabited by Spaniards (27 million people), Catalans (5.4 million people), Galicians (2.7 million people), and Basques. In terms of income, consumption and standard of living, Spain does not occupy a leading place in Europe. The minimum wage is at the same level as in Greece, higher than the Portuguese, but much lower than the Dutch. High unemployment is typical (18.8%). High unemployment is associated with the release of the working population as a result of the mechanization of labor-intensive work and the reduction of manual labor. The excess population is also due to the high birth rate of two or three decades ago. Despite high unemployment, the degree of consumption of material goods is quite high. Thus, 69% of families have cars. There are 2.4 people per housing; 13% of Spaniards have a second suburban home.(10,484-485) 2.

6. Farm characteristics

In the early 1970s. Spain joined the group of leading countries in the world and became the tenth industrial power on the planet. GDP volume- $850.7 billion. According to PPP (2003), per capita - $21,200. The share of the tenth of the population with the highest income is 25.2%. The monetary unit is euro.(8.106) 1 .

Spain is an industrial country in which agriculture and non-production industries. In 2002, over 51 million tourists visited Spain. 95% of tourists are from EU countries (France, Germany, Italy, England). Tourism income - 11% of GDP (2003).

Economic growth rate. In 1995-2003. average annual GDP growth was 2.6% (3.7% in 2003). The decisive factor in economic growth is domestic demand (over 4.5% annually). Strategic objective economic policy- further liberalization, privatization, deregulation of the economy with the aim of greater adaptation to the economic structure of the EU, development of small and medium-sized businesses, R&D, modernization and rationalization of management structures.

The science. R&D expenditures amount to 1% of GDP. The main allocations are directed to computer science, robotics, biotechnology, electrical engineering and the chemical industry. Spain seeks to strengthen its technological balance through the development of education.

Fiscal sphere. In 1991-2003 The budget deficit decreased from 7.1% to 1.6% of GDP. Budget revenues amounted to 10.5 billion dollars (2003). The policy of reforming the tax system at the regional and local levels continued.

Money-credit policy ensured financial stability (inflation rates decreased from 11.4% in 1991 to 3.0% in 2003) and coordination of economic policy in strict accordance with the objectives and priorities of economic policy. Long-term lending rates have fallen from 10% in 1993. up to 4.2% in 2003 Priorities social policy- ensuring employment, further reforming the education system, healthcare, pension system, labor legislation, developing social dialogue. The unemployment rate has fallen, although it remains the highest in the EU (8,106) 1 .

7. Industry

According to a number of indicators in manufacturing industry (production of cars, ships, machine tools, telecommunications equipment, products of the petrochemical, light and food industries) Spain is among the top ten global producers. The main driving force of industrial development is the telecommunications and information technology sector (8% of GDP), the automotive industry (over 3 million cars annually, almost 6% of GDP). GDP increased by 1.1% (2003).(8,107) 2 .

Foreign TNCs are actively represented in the industry - Ford, General Motors, Michelin, Nestlé, Unilever, Pirelli, Philips, Siemens, Olivetti. Among the ten leading domestic industrial companies: Repsol (oil refining), Telefonica (telecommunications), Tabacalera (food industry), Sepsa (oil refining), Fasa Renault, Seat, Ford España , General Motors España (automotive), Endesa, Idroelectrica Española (electric power).

Fuel and energy complex. Spain has a relatively poor supply of energy resources (37%), so it is planned to increase their imports, develop energy-saving technologies, and introduce equipment that reduces electricity consumption.

The main deposits of hard coal are concentrated in the Cantabrian Mountains (75% of production), with the majority of production coming from brown coal. Production and the number of coal mines are declining. The main coal mining company is Unosa.

Very little oil is produced, and the vast majority of it is imported from the Persian Gulf countries, North and West Africa and Venezuela. Imported oil is delivered by sea, so refineries are mainly located in port cities - Escombreras, Tarragona, Algeciras, Huelva, A Coruña, Bilbao, Santa Cruz de Tenerife. The oil pipeline from Malaga transports oil to the largest refinery in Puertollano. This company serves Madrid and is located on the Madrid - Malaga route.

The largest gas production is carried out in the fields of Aragon, the Basque Country and in the Seville area. Spain provides only ¼ gas needs.

The electric power industry has high growth rates. Thermal power plants and nuclear power plants are located in coal basins and near refineries. Now there are 9 nuclear reactors in the country, but since 1983 a moratorium on the construction of new nuclear power plants has been declared. Work on the development of alternative energy sources (solar, wind, etc.) is being stimulated, developing scientific research in the energy sector.

Ferrous metallurgy is experiencing a crisis. Spain is self-sufficient in iron ore and alloy metal ores, but depends on the import of coking coal. The importance of iron ore mining due to depletion of reserves is decreasing, and the role of basins is increasing. In total, more than 12 million tons of steel are produced. The largest manufacturer of stainless steel is Aserinox. Produces pipes for export. Spanish automobile factories, owned by foreign companies, rely on imported metal, so the metallurgy industry is forced to export its products. The main centers of iron and steel industry are Sestao (Basque Country), Sagunto (Valencia), Aviles (Asturias).

Non-ferrous metallurgy is well supplied with raw materials and operates mainly on the domestic market. Most of the mined mercury is exported to Japan, and zinc and tungsten are exported. Lead, aluminum and copper smelters operate. The leading position in non-ferrous metallurgy is occupied by the Inespal company. (10, 486-489) 1 .

8. Mechanical engineering

Mechanical engineering has become a leading sector of the economy. A complex of dynamic knowledge-intensive industries is being created in the field of computer science, including the production of computers and electronic components for telecommunications. These industries are focused on the domestic market. Industries with a strong export orientation include the electronics, aerospace, and communications industries. Automotive industry ranks 4th in Europe, it is under the control of foreign capital. The main Spanish automobile company Seat is a branch of the German Volkswagen. Cars occupy 1st place in Spanish exports. Production centers are located in Barcelona, Madrid, Valladolid, Seville, Vigo. Shipbuilding, whose production capacity accounts for 25% of the EU's potential, it is one of the competitive industries. It is specialized in the production of vessels for transporting liquefied gas and chemical products, ore carriers, fishing vessels, container ships, and oil platforms. Shipbuilding is located in Cadiz, Bilbao, El Ferrol, Vigo. IN aerial missile The industry produces Spanish-designed light transport aircraft and jet aircraft. Main centers -

Madrid and Barcelona. Well developed machine tool industry- the country ranks 5th in the EU in the production of machine tools, half of the production is exported.

Chemical industry represented by the production of acids, resins, plastics, synthetic rubber, chemical fiber, fertilizers, dyes and pharmaceuticals. The main centers of chemistry are Puertollano and Aviles. The largest concentration of chemical plants is in Catalonia.

Textile industry It is poorly concentrated, which complicates the use of modern technology and modernization; it also experiences strong competition from Greek and Portuguese fabrics and fabrics from “cheap” countries. Production centers are Catalonia, Seville, Valencia.

Shoe industry highly competitive, which is due to rich traditions, rapid adaptation to market requirements and cheap but qualified labor. The companies are located in Alicante and the Balearic Islands.

High share Food Industry. It is characterized by handicraft and family enterprises, poor technology, and low qualifications of the workforce. The production of meat and dairy products, wine, vegetable oils, fruit canning, and fish canning industries is highlighted. (10, 489-491) 1 .

9. Transport

Characteristic feature road transport is its concentration - Madrid and Barcelona account for 1/3 of the total fleet and interprovincial transport. The best road situation in the Basque Country. One of the largest highways, the “Coast of the Sun,” runs along the Mediterranean coast and is of great importance for tourism. The length of highways is 664 thousand km, of which 8 thousand km are high-speed routes (8,107) 1.

Length railways- 14 thousand km, in terms of their density the country is one of the last in Europe. The main part of the railways is owned by the state company RENFE.

Navy has more than 1800 ships. 80% of the country's imports and 70% of its exports pass through ports. Major ports: Bilbao, Cartagena, Barcelona, Valencia, Tarragona. Spanish ports are of great importance in passenger transportation, in particular tourism.

Most of air transportation falls on international lines. The number of airports is 152 (including private ones), their annual capacity is over 80 million passengers. The largest airports: Madrid, Malaga, Las Palmas, Barajas. The country's main aviation company is Iberia. (10.494) 2 .

10. Foreign economic relations

The EU accounts for more than 70% of national exports. The main recipients of Spanish goods are neighbors Portugal and France. The most important trading partners are the United States, Latin American countries and Japan. The country's gold and foreign exchange reserves - $68 billion (1997) - one of the largest in the world - testify to its economic success. Foreign economic policy aimed at developing exports, diversifying its commodity and geographical structure, reducing the trade deficit . International trade. Export of goods - 123 billion dollars (2002), of which raw materials account for 20%, finished industrial goods - 78%, high-tech products - 8%. Import - 157

billion dollars. 80% of imports are fuel and energy resources and mechanical products. Movement of capital. In 2003, the influx of foreign direct investment amounted to over 21 billion dollars, and the volume of accumulated foreign direct investment was 162 billion dollars. The main investors are the EU and the USA. The volume of accumulated direct Spanish investment abroad is also large - $160 billion. Special economic zone - Canary Islands. The state of the balance of payments and external debt. The negative balance of payments for current transactions is $14 billion (2002), public external debt amounted to $90 billion (1997). Participation in economic groups: EU member (since 1985), OECD.

Economic relations with Russia. In 2003, foreign trade turnover increased by 58%, including the volume of Spanish exports to the Russian Federation amounted to $1.2 billion, imports - $1.8 billion; over 80% of imports are oil and other raw materials. The total volume of accumulated Spanish investments in Russia is about 90 million dollars (2002). (8,107-108) 1.

11. Tourism

Spain is a country of two seas and one ocean, two archipelagos (Balearic and Canary Islands) and 300 sunny days a year. In addition, Spain ranks first in terms of the length of beaches in Europe - there are more than 445 km! Spain is also famous for its historical cities (Seville, Granada, Madrid, Barcelona are worthy of a separate trip in themselves) and famous museums, such as the Dali Theater-Museum in Figueres, the Picasso Museum in Malaga or the Prado Museum in Madrid. One trip to Spain will not be enough to experience all the beauty of this country. (1.3) 2 . Now the country receives more than half of all income from tourism. In 1959, 3 million tourists came to Spain per year; in 1973 - 34 million (one tourist for every Spaniard), now about 50 million. The Mediterranean coast of Spain, built up with hotels, casinos, esplanades, is considered in Europe the best holiday destination for representatives of the “middle class”. Spain will make an unforgettably wonderful impression. (1, 70) 1 .

12. Signs and symbols of Spain

Flag Spain was officially approved in 1981. It is a horizontal panel with a wide yellow stripe in the center and two narrow red stripes along the upper and lower edges. Yellow and red are the medieval heraldic colors of Castile and Aragon. On the left on the yellow stripe is the coat of arms of Spain. It is composed of the coats of arms of Castile and Leon (golden three-towered castle and purple crowned lion) and the coat of arms of the province of Granada (golden garnet); On it is written the old Plus Ultra motto - “More and further”. The author of the Spanish anthem is unknown; its melody is the soldier's "March of the Grenadiers", which survived all the Spanish revolutions.

Flamenco exists only in Spain, although this folk dance owes its birth to the gypsies (it is no coincidence that its second name is “hitano” - “gypsy”). According to the most common version, the gypsies came to Europe from India; as García Lorca wrote, “having reached our Andalusia, the gypsies combined the most ancient elements of local songs with the most ancient beginning that they themselves brought.”

What does the word “flamenco” mean? It literally translates as “Flemish”, although the dance has nothing to do with Flanders; Probably, the Flemish Castilians called the rude and wild behavior of the gypsies. According to another version, the word comes from the Arabic “felagmengu” - a runaway peasant, a person of the lower classes.

Real flamenco consists of only three “elements” - voice, guitar and dance. The flamenco singer, in a high and shrill voice, very reminiscent of monotonous oriental chants, sings about suffering, love, freedom, death. These bitter, sad songs apparently existed long before the birth of dance.

Flamenco dance must, first of all, convey a feeling, its structure. Unlike most folk dances, flamenco is always danced by one person, and all his belligerence, his love is in himself, it is transmitted through movement. Dancers do not at all strive to be weightless, to get off the ground; on the contrary, they try to maintain closeness to the earth; flamenco often seems too frank and shameless. The song requires the dancer's complete fusion with the music and his absolute emotional emancipation; he must actually lose self-control and experience a kind of ecstasy. This is the highest point of flamenco, this is what the dancers strive to achieve and this is what the audience expects from them.

Bullfight- the second identification mark and the most important symbol of Spain is also not a local invention at all. Probably, the inhabitants of the Iberian Peninsula were introduced to it by the ancient Greeks, who loved bullfighting. The very tradition of public battle with an animal comes from ancient sacrificial rituals. In Spain in the Middle Ages, battles were entertainment for the aristocracy: knights went out to fight with a bull on the occasion of court holidays. Only in the 18th century. bullfighting became a national spectacle. Bullfighting arenas appeared in most Spanish cities. They are easy to recognize: they are open round areas. Seats for spectators are located on the stands and balconies, one of the balconies is intended for the president of the bullfight, who gives the sign to release the bulls and awards the bullfighter. Opposite the President's box there are two gates: one for bullfighters, the other for bulls, which are kept in special pens before the start of the bullfight. In Pamplona, on the April days of St. Fermin's bulls are released from their pens on the edge of the city, and they run towards the arena along the old narrow streets. Keep in mind that bullfighting is not an easy spectacle; many places are under the scorching sun, the action lasts 2 hours 15 minutes. You can learn about the history and traditions of bullfighting, see the costumes of matadors, and photographs of the most famous fights in special bullfighting museums. Bullfighting is usually held on weekends from March 19 to October 12. It opens with a ceremonial parade, during which mounted stewards introduce the matadors and their teams to the public. The performance itself consists of three acts. In the first act, the matador, with the help of picadors (riders) and peons (assistants), teases the bull with a muleta - a scarlet cloak on a rod. In this way he recognizes the bull's character and shows the audience its strength and maturity; The picadors stab the bull with their pikes and infuriate him. In the second act, several decorated darts are stuck into his body to further anger the wounded bull. Finally, in the third act, the matador ends the whole action with one precise and fatal blow of the sword between the shoulder blades. If the audience liked the bullfight, then the president awards the bullfighter the ears or tail of the killed bull. This custom has been preserved since the last century, when the matador’s only reward was the carcass of the bull he killed; to get it, the matador presented his ear to the butchers. Sometimes, before the start of the last act, the matador chooses to whom he wants to dedicate his victory - a woman, a friend, the president, the public.

One bullfight usually involves three bullfighters, who take turns fighting six bulls. Traveling through the south of the country, you can see fenced pastures for fighting bulls - the animals are carefully guarded and not trained at all; farm owners strive to preserve the natural aggressiveness of the bulls so that they do not turn out to be impassive in the arena. (1.81-85) 1

13. Spain is different

Already in the name Iberian Peninsula there is an inextricable connection between Spain and the Pyrenees, and more broadly, with the mountains. In terms of the number of mountains in the country, Spain is second only to Switzerland, and the average height of the Pyrenees (1500m) exceeds the average height of the Alps. Between these natural barriers lie plateaus, plains, and fields. This extraordinary “cut-up” of the peninsula’s territory has contributed to the fact that each part of the country has its own history, culture, gastronomic and everyday traditions, and residents of some regions speak their own language, different from Spanish. The country's turbulent history is largely explained by the fact that it was created by very different people: hardworking Catalans living near France, sybarites of the desert pastoral south, and peasants of impoverished Extremadura who sought happiness and wealth in South America. Only he who could compel such different people to obey could rule Spain; That is why centralization has reached such extremes here.

Mountains are one of the main driving forces of Spanish history and culture. “Inhabitants of the lowlands” are forced, for the sake of their own safety and well-being, to constantly subjugate, conquer and reclaim the mountains. It is easy to hide in the mountains, and it was the mountains that saved the Visigoth Christians from complete submission to the Moors. News reaches high mountain villages slowly; The highlanders are deprived of many of the conquests of lowland civilizations - but they are also freed from numerous restrictions. In the mountains there are no rich landowners, wealthy clergy, or strict judges. Mountains are a haven of freedom. Perhaps this is why the Spaniards are considered the most freedom-loving nation in Europe.

To see real mountain landscapes with green valleys against a backdrop of snowy cliffs, you should go to the north of the country and drive along the Atlantic coast. The Cantabrian Mountains separate several areas from the Bay of Biscay, and the easternmost of them is Basque Country. Its inhabitants have preserved their own culture for many centuries and their language is one of the oldest in the world. Anthropologists highlight a hypothesis about their origin directly from the Cro-Magnons. The Basques are characterized by fierce pride and stubbornness; they never submitted to strangers - not even to the Romans. Therefore, many prehistoric caves and dolmens have been preserved on the territory of this province, but you will not see Roman ruins or Moorish palaces here. When driving through the Basque Country, remember that many cities here have both common Spanish names and their own Basque names. San Sebastian, located on the shores of the Bay of Biscay, is one of the most beautiful and expensive resorts in the world; film and music festivals are held here in August and September. The capital of the Basque country, Bilbao, the industrial and financial center of northern Spain, is worth a visit for the famous Museum of Modern Art, which has become a symbol of 21st century architecture.

Basques also live in the neighboring province, an ancient kingdom Navarre. The Navarra Museum in the regional capital of Pamplona preserves evidence of the history of the province: there you can see beautiful Roman mosaics, Romanesque sculpture, and Gothic painting. Pamplona owes its fame to Hemingway - his “Fiesta” takes place here.

The Basque Country borders the mountainous province in the south La Rioja- small in size, but world famous for its vineyards. It is the center of Spanish winemaking; the capital is the city of Logrono, and most of the wineries are concentrated around Haro.

Continuing along the ocean coast and the Cantabrian Mountains to the west, you will come to Cantabria. Here is the Picos de Europa mountain range, the peaks of which are covered with snow. In caves preserved from the Stone Age, the ancient inhabitants of these places left rock carvings of animals. The most famous of them can be seen in the Altamira cave. The capital of Cantabria is the city of Santander, a resort and fishing port on the shores of the Bay of Biscay.

The Cantabrian mountains approach the sea almost closely in Asturias; its 300-kilometer coastline is heavily indented by headlands and river mouths. The Cowandonga Valley is now a national park. Asturias was never conquered by the Moors, and this gives the Asturians only the right to consider themselves true Spaniards. The capital of the region, Oviedo, is located among meadows and is famous for its beautiful churches from the pre-Romanesque period.

The westernmost region of the country is Galicia; one of its capes is named Finisterre - “end of the earth”. Indeed, this is where the world ended in ancient times. Galicians consider themselves descendants of the ancient Galician tribe and speak their own language, Gallego. The city of Galicia, Santiago de Compostela, is one of the most famous cities in the world and the second center of Catholicism after Rome: the relics of the Apostle James are kept in the cathedral.

The central part of Spain is occupied by a plateau Meseta, a large open plain with rocky soil, located at an altitude of 600-1200 m above sea level. The Meseta is crossed by the largest rivers in Spain - the Duero and Tagus, and by numerous roads that since ancient times have connected north and south, east and west. Like the outlying Muscovy, which united Rus' around itself, located on the Meseta Castile was able to connect the disparate parts of the country, “to create Spain. It is to Castile that anyone who wants to see the architecture of old Europe should go - the largest Roman aqueduct has been preserved in Segovia, amazing Gothic cathedrals have been preserved in Leon and Burgos, and in Salamanca almost every building is a Renaissance monument. And, of course, there is no way to avoid Toledo, the unforgettable city of El Greco, standing on a cliff surrounded by a rushing river.

In the center of the Meseta and the entire peninsula is Madrid- the administrative capital of the state and the province of the same name. A typical modern metropolis filled with tourists, shops, cafes, hotels, and constant traffic jams, Madrid is worth visiting for its three largest art museums and several private collections. It has the best collection of Spanish paintings in the world, and you cannot leave Spain without seeing paintings by Goya, Velazquez and Picasso.

The province is located in the eastern part of Meseta Aragon with its capital in Zaragoza, in the western - Extremadura with its capital in Merida. Both provinces have beautiful monuments from the Roman era, but they are famous primarily for their natives: Goya, Pissaro and Hernandez . Andalusia, the largest region of the country, located in the south, on the only large lowland, the Andalusian. It is called “the granary, orchard, wine cellar and sheepfold of Spain,” and this unique area was created by human hands. Go there if you want to experience Spain's Moorish civilization, the most sophisticated culture of medieval Europe. Andalusia is bliss and peace, the murmur of fountains in the gardens of Granada, Arabic mosaics in Cordoba, flamenco and bullfighting, the Mediterranean coast, where the hot winds of Africa blow, cave houses equipped with computers, endless olive groves, Andalusian horses on the slopes, sherry and Malaga. Seville is the capital of Andalusia.

In the middle of the 20th century. The coasts made Spain rich - not through trade, but through tourism. Having filled sandy beaches and built hotels and sea esplanades on the site of fishermen's houses, Spain has become one of the most attractive resort countries. Although in Murcia, and in Valencia There are historical and cultural attractions, it is worth going there for those who are primarily interested in beaches, amusement parks, holiday romances, fish and fruits. Catalonia also has a rich tourist infrastructure, but is interesting, first of all, for its capital - Barcelona, the second capital of Spain. Here you can visit a beautiful Gothic cathedral with magnificent stained glass windows, the world's largest aquarium, and huge supermarkets. Catalans do not consider themselves Spanish and speak a distinct Catalan language. (1.53-59) 1 .

Conclusion

From our youth, we all remember the windmills of Don Quixote, the Grand Inquisitor of Dostoevsky; we listen to “Carmen”, “The Barber of Seville”, look at paintings by Dali, landscapes by El Greco, paintings on religious themes by Luis Morales, portraits by Diego Velazquez, Francisco Goya. Spain, a poor and weak country on the edge of Europe, gave the world three great painters: Pablo Picasso, Joan Miró, Salvador Dali. We imagine Spain according to Pushkin: “I am here, Inesilla...”. (6.149) 1 .

All these images emerge in our memory when, in the prospect of another vacation, we suddenly ask ourselves: should we go to Spain? What kind is it? Are the mills still standing? Bullfight? Flamenco? Sultry Spanish women and burning Spaniards? Yes, all this is in Spain.

In this course work, we examined the general characteristics of the country, its geographical and geopolitical position, useful resources, government structure, population, individual sectors of the economy, and foreign economic relations. We considered Spain as a tourist country - with its numerous cities, traditional holidays, and local attractions.

It turned out that the millstones are turning, the Guadalquivir flows its muddy waters, fighting bulls graze in fenced meadows, beautiful landscapes and the best resorts in the world surround you. Spain is an economically highly developed country with a thriving tourism business.

Bibliography

1. “Around the World: Spain” / under. ed. Levitskaya E.A. - M.: Around the World, 2004. - 420 pp., illustrated.

2. Gornung M.B., Maksakovsky V.P., Mashbits Ya.G. and others. Economic and social geography of foreign countries: developed capitalist and developing countries. Textbook for pedagogical students. Institute for Geography specialist. - M.: Education, 1981. - 317 p.

3. Ledovskikh S.I., Rozin M.S., Pokshimevsky V.V. Etc. Economic geography of foreign countries: a textbook for economics. specialist. Universities / ed. Ledovskikh S.I. and Rozina M.S. - M.: Higher School, 1982. - 368 p.

4. Mashbits Ya.G. Fundamentals of regional studies: a book for teachers. - M.: AST, 2000. - 268 p.

5. Mironenko N.S. Regional studies: theory and methods. Textbook for universities. - M.: Aspect - press, 2001. - 268 p.

6. Pushkin A.S. Selected works in two volumes: poems, tales, poems. (Volume one) / ed. Sumarokova T.A. - M.: Fiction, 1965. - 480 p.

7. Ratanova M.P., Baburin V.L., Gladkevich G.I., Gorlov V.N., Danshin A.I. Economic and social geography of neighboring countries: a manual for universities / ed. Ratanova M.P. - M.: Bustard, 2004. - 576 p.

8. Countries and regions of the world: economic and political reference book / ed. Bulatova A.S. - M.: TK Welby, Prospekt Publishing House, 2006. - 624 p.

9. Countries of the world: facts and figures / leading editor. Yerusalimsky G.B. - St. Petersburg: “Norint”, 2000. - 208 p.

10. Economic, social and political geography of the world. Regions and countries / ed. Doctor of Geography sciences, prof. Lavrova S.B., Ph.D. Geogr. Sciences, Associate Professor Kamedina N.V., textbook. - M.: Gardariki, 2002. - 928 p.

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This is not the place to go into the details of the internal life of Spain, although the nature of the conflict - a civil war - requires several important points to be noted. After the almost complete loss of its colonial empire due to defeat in 1898.

In the war with the United States, Spain experienced a severe economic crisis. Economically, the country was divided into two parts: the northern part (Catalonia, Basque provinces, Galicia and Vizcaya), more industrially developed with more powerful industry and mining, and the rest of the peninsula, where agriculture and backward latifundia predominated. In the industrial areas the Socialist Party strengthened, but it was divided, especially in Catalonia, into two currents: anarchist and socialist. In 1921, as a result of a split in the socialist party, the Communist Party was created.

Spain's industry was able to grow stronger thanks to its neutrality during the First World War. This contributed to the spread of socio-political reparations, on the one hand, and increased opposition to them from reactionary and conservative circles, on the other. In September 1923, King Alfonso XIII, who had been on the throne since 1902, was forced to overcome a deep crisis caused by the defeat of Spanish troops in Morocco, which was in the grip of an uprising led by Abd al-Kerim. In a very tense situation, Captain General of the Catalan Armed Forces Miguel Primo de Rivera, relying on the strong support of industrialists and some “independent” trade unionists, carried out a military coup on the night of September 12–13. The king reacted cautiously and passively. The government of García Prieto, which demanded the removal of the military responsible for the coup, was dismissed. A few hours later, Primo de Rivera was called to govern the country. A state of emergency was declared; Thus began a period of dictatorship, which in many ways resembled the fascist regime.

De Rivera's first task was to complete the conquest of Morocco. Abd al-Kerim's revolt affected both French and Spanish Morocco, but an agreement with France allowed repressive measures to be carried out jointly. In 1924 and until the end of September 1925, the uprising was brutally suppressed, which contributed to the growth of Primo de Rivera's prestige and added attractiveness and a sense of power to his image. However, in the internal

in the life of the country, the results were different. De Rivera tried to implement government regulation of industry; financially, he relied on significant American capital investments, but his reforms did not affect the old structures, which managed to strengthen themselves using the tendencies towards monopolies of large industrial enterprises and financial groups. He acted harshly on social issues. All hints of agrarian reform were forgotten. An attempt to import the corporate experience of Italian fascists into Spain was unsuccessful.

The government was unable to suppress the unrest; it grew throughout the country.

This raised the question of relations with the dictatorship for the monarchy. Beginning in 1929, Alfonso XIII set out to free himself from dictator Primo de Rivera. Aware of his own political weakness, De Ribera himself tried to push the democratic process to develop, but to no avail. On January 28, the king dismissed him and instructed General Damasio Berenguer to form a new government, which was supposed to work a miracle and save the monarchy from the popular discontent that was growing during the reign of Primo de Rivera. The new government had to restore socio-political balance in the country and revive parliamentary norms.

The change of government took place in an atmosphere of growing social tension, as evidenced by the wave of strikes that swept through the industrial cities of Northern Spain in December 1930. Berenguer resigned. King Alfonso XIII tried to find some compromise solutions and eventually appointed Admiral Juan Bautista Aznar to lead the government. A few months later, in the administrative elections of April 1931, the workers' and republican parties achieved notable success. For several days Alfonso XIII tried to find a way out. But a republic spontaneously arose throughout the country and in Madrid itself, and on April 14 the king decided to voluntarily leave his homeland. From that moment on, Spain became a republic.

The provisional government under the leadership of Niceto Alcala Zamora was a coalition of centrists and moderate progressives who came together to uphold democratic norms. The government faced a difficult task: to create a liberal regime in a country in which social divisions had increased under the dictatorship, and state institutions were still under the control of traditionalist forces. The Republicans intended to transform Spain into a modern country, and for this they had to fight

with the ossified rule of the latifundists, with a powerful traditionalist clergy, with an army loyal to the past regime. The years from 1931 to 1936 were a period of social tension and acute political struggle, there was a rapid change of events, and there was rampant violence, for which all extremist forces were responsible.

In June 1931, elections to the Constituent Assembly were held, as a result of which the votes were divided almost equally between right-wing and center-right groups and socialist and radical socialist forces. The discussion of the new constitution showed the depth of differences between these political forces, in particular on the issue of agrarian reform and the granting of autonomy to Catalonia. In this situation, the right announced a boycott of the adoption of the new constitution, which did not prevent it from being approved by a wide majority at the end of December. The leader of the Republican Action Party, Manuel Azaña, a democratic politician with Anglo-Saxon roots, was tasked with forming a new government to replace the one he had led for several months.

In August 1932, General José Sanjurjo, one of the most influential military commanders during the war in Morocco, who had also been involved in political intrigues at the king’s court for many years, attempted, but failed, to carry out a coup d’etat. Meanwhile, the government intended to carry out serious reforms: agrarian, religious congregations and local autonomies. But the general political climate has led to an increase in extremism and a toughening of the political struggle in the country.

In the parliamentary elections in October 1933, the right won and again came to power with the goal of dismantling everything that the republican government had accomplished. This led to an increase in violence throughout the country, fueled primarily by anarchist groups. The period from 1933 to 1935 became especially difficult, while the right reorganized its forces. In October 1933, José Antonio Primo de Rivera, the son of the dictator who led the country in the twenties, founded the openly fascist movement - the Phalanx. In turn, José María Gil Robles created the Spanish Confederation of Autonomous Right (SABL), which sought to establish a moderate-clerical regime.

The left learned a harsh lesson when it tried to organize an uprising of Asturian miners in October 1934. It was an attempt to make a real revolution based on the miners and with the support of the Comintern, which was brutally suppressed by the military

Chapter 3. Crisis and collapse of the Versailles system

commanded by Generals Manuel Lopez Godeda and Francisco Franco Bahamonde, who were supported by the troops of the Foreign Legion.

The defeat in Asturias prompted the left parties to develop a common program. This important moment attracted the attention of Europeans to the political struggle in Spain. In Spain, what happened earlier in Italy, Germany, and Austria was repeated, and what could have happened in France was accomplished. This was a kind of mirror opposition between two extreme points of view on the organization of political life: reactionary and revolutionary, shared by some movements in Spain. This opposition also absorbed certain aspects of international life that led to the revival of barbarism.

The movement for the unity of the Spanish left, which gained strength in the first half of 1935, became especially energetic after the VII Congress of the Comintern proclaimed in Moscow in August the task of forming popular fronts to fight against fascism. In January 1936, an agreement was reached on unity of action between the Socialist Party, the Communist Party, the Republican Left, the Workers' Party of the Marxist Unification - POUM (Trotskyist), the anarchists and some other political organizations of the Spanish left. They consciously adopted a moderate program: a return to agrarian reform and the restoration of the autonomy of Catalonia, the implementation of a reform of the legislation on school education. Proposals for nationalization were rejected both in relation to large land properties and banks.

In the elections to the Cortes on February 16, 1936, the Popular Front received the largest number of seats. The various right-wing formations that competed separately in the elections achieved significant success, most notably the National Front, which received 400,000 fewer votes than the Popular Front. Overall, the right received slightly more votes than the left. But the fragmentation of the right and the technical mechanism of the electoral law allowed the Popular Front to achieve an impressive victory for the first time in Western Europe and gain 278 seats in parliament; The right won 134 seats, the centrists 55 seats. The left won a legitimate victory, but it in itself contained seeds of discord that intensified the opposition of political forces that split the weak Spanish democracy. A few weeks later, right-wing representatives and military leaders began plotting a coup.

Meanwhile, the people's government began its difficult work. The Socialist Party was not homogeneous, it

Part 1. Twenty years between two wars

There were two directions: the revolutionary pro-Soviet one, led by Largo Caballero (whom his comrades called the “Spanish Lenin”) and the reformist one, led by Indalecio Prieto. The influence of the communists was limited. There was growing unrest in Spain, and after a short time the situation in the country became catastrophic. Extremist leftists tried to put pressure on the government through land grabs and other violent actions. Gil Robles's right-wing organization SABL lost its authority and gave way to representatives of the Falange and monarchist groups led by José Calvo Sotelo. On July 13, 1936, Sotelo was killed by a group of socialists who wanted to avenge their comrade. This action launched the coup d'etat mechanism.

Preparations for it began in February. The rebellion was led by generals Sanjurjo, Franco and Emilio Mola Vidal, who established their command center in Spanish Morocco, from where a military coup began on July 17 to overthrow the legitimate government of Madrid. It was followed by a speech by various military garrisons throughout Spain. The government quickly responded to the actions of the generals, and the rebels had no choice but to transfer the rebel troops from Morocco to the territory of the metropolis.

After the death of General Sanjurjo in a plane crash on July 20, Franco, a forty-year-old officer who rose to prowess through military skill, composure, and the conviction of a fighter against leftists and communists, took over the top command. For this purpose, he was ready to cooperate with all forces that would recognize the order he established in Spain. Acting pragmatically, he nevertheless consistently carried out the plan of establishing an authoritarian regime, the core of which was the strengthening of his personal power, which then helped him become a Spanish caudillo, i.e. leader and symbol of the new fascist Spain. On July 25, the rebel troops established their government in Burgos, away from the place where the rebels landed on Spanish soil to show that anti-government centers were being formed throughout the country.

The history of the internal life of Spain and the civil war was largely connected with the development of international events, and this made it possible to foresee that such a radical clash would not remain without consequences. The growth of anxiety was facilitated by the new situation that developed in the Mediterranean in 1935-1936. Against this background, the civil war in Spain had a wide international resonance, leading to conflict in one way or another

Chapter 3. Crisis and collapse of the Versailles system

Other countries were also involved. The events of the civil war fit into a new international context, which was already characterized by instability due to the Italian war in Ethiopia and its consequences. In broad terms, the Spanish War increased the threat to the international system due to turbulent changes. In particular, it was these changes and, above all, the concluded conventions at Montreux that revealed the disruption of the political balance in the rest of Europe.

Without being able to trace in this work the course of operations carried out for almost three years by the opposing forces of the legitimate government and General Franco, we note that from the first days the clash had a wide international resonance in ideological terms and, even more, in terms of international politics. The Frankists needed help to transport their troops to the continent and to build up enough power to fight government forces.

The government of Madrid faced the difficulties of civil war as if suddenly, although it was not unexpected. Both sides asked for help from those who could provide it, but the response to the appeal was different. Franco sent emissaries to Rome and Berlin, the ambassador of the legitimate government turned to Paris. The civil war acquired an international dimension.

Hitler made decisions alone and consulted with his assistants only about methods of intervention in the Spanish situation. The news of the mutiny in Spain was unexpected for Hitler, but the event seemed very important, as it made it possible to take a number of serious steps. Germany had direct strategic interests in Spain, but, nevertheless, based on the available documents, it should be excluded that this was what prompted Hitler to plan intervention in Spanish affairs for a long time. Of course, in the Fuhrer’s decision there was an economic interest associated with the possibility of mining tungsten and iron, rich deposits of which Spain had. But that was not the main thing. The most important for Hitler were military, ideological and international political aspects.

Germany's military intervention in Spain resulted in about twenty transport aircraft being dispatched to Morocco in a timely manner, followed by the dispatch of materials, weapons and specialists (in total, the size of the Condor Legion - volunteers or special forces - sent in 1937, amounted to more than 10,000 people). This made it possible to experience

Part 1. Twenty years between two wars

in war conditions, products of German industry, which increased the pace of production. About twenty Junkers 52 transport aircraft were used to transport the rebels to Spain; warplanes were also used to bomb Guernica; submarines were used to sink ships carrying aid sent to the legitimate government; military weapons had to show their effectiveness.

In terms of ideology, the Spanish Civil War, with its struggle against the left and in particular against Bolshevism, provided an opportunity to show, especially to the British, that Germany intended to become the vanguard of Europe in the fight against the rise of Soviet power and the spread of Bolshevism. Germany anticipated the Anti-Comintern Pact of November 25, 1936 and sought to give its actions a certain appeal to those who shared its views.

Italy was given an important place in German international politics. Hitler determined how Mussolini should provide assistance to Spain. But the Duce hesitated and first sent raw materials and weapons, and only in December 1936 he ordered the first contingent, numbering 3,000 “Black Shirts,” to be sent. Italy, which still needed resources to complete the occupation of Ethiopia, was forced to concentrate its attention on the Mediterranean and distance itself from solving European problems and, in particular, the Austrian question. Thus, the gulf between Italy and France deepened (it must be remembered that in June 1936 the Italian armed forces were still bound by the Badoglio-Gamelin agreement on the joint defense of Austria against the German threat). Finally, the more Italy became involved in solving Mediterranean issues, the more problems arose for Great Britain, which was forced to reconsider its attitude towards what was happening on the continent.

For the Italians, who poured enormous resources into Spain (some 50,000 volunteers, 800 aircraft, 2,000 guns and a hundred ships) and decisively supported Franco in propaganda terms, the nature of the motivation was both simple and complex. First of all, territorial ambitions and claims to the islands of the Balearic archipelago should be excluded. This fear was widespread at the time, as was the possibility that Franco might provide the Germans with bases in the Canary Archipelago. In reality, the Italians used the Balearic Islands as bases for military operations, but not

Chapter 3. Crisis and collapse of the Versailles system

were planning to stay there permanently. However, the strengthening of the Italian presence in the Western Mediterranean caused fear both among the French, who feared a threat to their relations with North Africa, and among the British, concerned about the security of communications between Gibraltar and Suez.

It is very difficult to establish which motivations prevailed: ideological or strategic. Taking a more careful approach, if we take into account that the basis of Mussolini’s foreign policy was realism (relations with Germany show the predominance of geopolitical principles over ideological proximity) and if we take into account that Mussolini was not personally acquainted with Franco and his plans, then one cannot fail to recognize the sincerity Mussolini, when he explained the reasons for intervention in Spanish affairs in a conversation with his young friend Yvon de Beignac: “We need the victory of Francoist Spain so that tomorrow we do not find ourselves locked in our sea.” In other words, the fascist dictator was driven by the fear that the new government of Spain, formed by the Popular Front, and the representatives of the Popular Front heading the French government, would be able to create a pro-communist bloc, which, with the support of the Soviet Union, an ally of France, and thanks to the Montreux Convention, would be able to build up activity in the Mediterranean and paralyze Italy's hopes in the region. This potential bloc further deepened the differences between French and English policies, pushing Britain into further agreement with Germany, which had the consequence of reducing Italy's freedom of maneuver both in the Mediterranean and on the European continent.

Makeup. Skin and hair care. Manicure

Economic-geographical and political-geographical position of the country

Introduction

Geographical and geopolitical location

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