INTRODUCTION

The Middle Ages lasted almost a thousand years - from the 5th to the 15th centuries. During this historical period, huge changes took place in world history: the colossus of the Roman Empire collapsed, then Byzantium. After the conquest of Rome, barbarian tribes created their own states on the European continent with a defining national culture.

During this period, a lot of changes occur in the world in all areas of state development. These changes did not spare culture and religion. During the Middle Ages, each nation had its own history of cultural development and the influence of religion on it.

At all times, people needed to believe in something, hope for someone, worship someone, fear someone, explain the inexplicable with something, and all peoples had their own unknown. There were pagans, Muslims, Christians, etc.

At this time, Christianity was considered the main religion in the West and in Rus'. But, if the Russian Middle Ages were considered the XIII-XV centuries, then in the West it is the end of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, i.e. the most fruitful years in the formation of Western European culture. In our country, at least the first two of these three centuries correspond to defeat, cultural isolation from the West and stagnation, from which Rus' was just beginning to climb out at the very end of the 14th and 15th centuries.

That is why I would like to separately understand how Christianity influenced the culture of Western European peoples and Rus'.

To understand how religion influenced culture, you need to understand how people lived at that time, what they thought about, what worried them and cared most about them then.

The establishment of Christianity as the state religion in some countries, starting from the 4th century, and its active spread led to a significant reorientation of all spheres of late antique spiritual culture into the mainstream of a new worldview system. All types of artistic activity. Formation has actually begun new theory art, the preconditions of which had already developed in the early Christian period. The Fathers of the Church made their significant contribution to this process.

1 . General characteristics of the Middle Ages

In the Middle Ages, natural farming was primitive, productive forces and technology were poorly developed. Wars and epidemics bled nations dry. The Inquisition suppressed any thought that ran counter to church dogma, brutally dealing with bearers of heretical teachings and those suspected of collaborating with the devil.

At this time, machines began to be used, windmills, water wheel, steering, printing and much more.

The very concept of “the Middle Ages” cannot in any way be a kind of integrity. There are Early, High Middle Ages and Decline. Each period has its own characteristics of the spiritual sphere and culture.

The clash of cultural orientations gave rise to multi-layered and contradictory consciousness medieval man. The commoner, living at the mercy of folk beliefs and primitive images, had the beginnings of a Christian worldview. An educated person was not completely free from pagan ideas. At the same time, religion was the undoubted dominant for everyone.

The essence of the medieval way of relating to the world was determined by the divine model of the world, which was supported by all the means available to the church (and the state subordinate to it). This model determined the features of the medieval era. The main features of this model are the following:

Specifically, the medieval understanding of the Universe, where God acts as the main world creative force, human intervention in divine affairs was unacceptable;

Medieval monotheism, in which the Universe was conceived as absolutely subordinate to God, to whom alone the laws of nature and the divine cosmos are accessible. This is a force infinitely more powerful than a person and dominated him;

Man is an insignificant, weak, sinful creature, a speck of dust in the divine world, and particles of the divine world are available to him only through the atonement of sins and the worship of God.

The central event of the medieval model of the world was God. The entire complex of the super-complex social hierarchy of events in the medieval world fit into this event. A special place in this hierarchy was occupied by the church, which was entrusted with a divine mission.

The main population of the Middle Ages were peasants.

2 . The process of Christianization in the Middle Ages

The ideological position of the church was that it was actually on the side of the masters, being, moreover, the largest owner. And yet the church tried to smooth out conflicts in society, preaching equality before God, humility and the sanctity of poverty. The poor experience troubles and hardships on earth, but they are God's chosen ones, worthy of the Kingdom of Heaven. Poverty is a moral virtue.

The medieval church recognized work as a consequence of original sin. Working to get rich was condemned. The work of an ascetic - work to eradicate idleness, to curb the flesh, for moral improvement - was considered a godly deed.

2.1 Process of Christianization in Europe

In Europe, society in the minds of people was divided into three main social strata: clergy, peasants and knights. The social ideals were the life of saints and the heroic deeds of the warrior. The process of Christianization proceeded with great difficulties. The state used its authority and power to eradicate paganism and introduce Christianity. The peasant was excluded from the system of public legal rules and could not be a warrior. People who remembered their free ancestors had a hard time experiencing their bondage. The people associated their freedom and independence with the pagan faith, and Christianization with the power and oppression of the state.

The most comprehensive measures were taken to eradicate pagan superstitions. Particular attention is paid to rituals associated with the cult of the forces of nature. Fortune telling, spells, and divinations were also considered forbidden and were severely punished.

In the fight against paganism, the Church used not only punishment, but also careful adaptation. Pope Gregory I was a supporter of the gradual replacement of pagan religious stereotypes with Christian rituals. He advised not to destroy pagan temples, but to sprinkle them with holy water and replace idols with altars and relics of saints. Animal sacrifice needs to be replaced holidays, when animals will be slaughtered for the glory of God and for food. He recommended that instead of the pagan walk around the fields for harvest, processions should be organized for Trinity.

The life of peasants in the Middle Ages was determined by the changing seasons, each person goes through the same cycle of events. Constant employment and focus on traditions and rituals made it impossible to go beyond the cyclical framework.

Christianity, instead of the cyclical flow of time, natural for the peasant, implanted a linear historical flow of time with the Super-event of the Last Judgment at its end. Fear of retribution for sins becomes a powerful factor in joining Christianity.

The reverse process was also carried out - Christianity assimilated paganism and subjected it to changes. This was due to several reasons. One of them was that the priests themselves were often from peasant backgrounds and in many ways remained pagans. Another reason was that the worship of saints was associated with the needs of the majority of the population, who were unable to understand the abstract God and needed to worship a visible, understandable image. The clergy exalted the saints for their piety, virtues, and Christian holiness; the flock valued them, first of all, for their ability to perform magic: the ability to work miracles, heal, and protect. Medieval man existed on the verge of oblivion: famine, wars, epidemics claimed many lives, almost no one lived to old age, and infant mortality was very high. Man felt an urgent need for protection from dangers approaching from all sides.

The Church could not help but take on the functions of magical human protection. Some magical rituals passed into Christian rituals almost without changes. Moreover, the church even multiplied and complicated ritual life. The veneration of God was carried out in the Christian church through sacraments such as communion, baptism, and priesthood. Also used were blessed water, bread, and candles. Blessed objects were used at home and in everyday life. Theologians saw only symbolism in all this and did not recognize their supernatural power. Common people used them primarily as amulets: not for cleansing from sins and communion with God, but for protection from diseases, slander, and damage. Peasants even used church gifts to heal livestock.

Excessive ritualization emasculated the spiritual essence of faith and mechanized communication with God. Rituals degenerated into mechanical, meaningless repetition. Believers, in order to cleanse themselves of sins, could do without a high spiritual attitude, just by formally performing rituals. The Church could not abolish superstitions, rituals and rites that distorted the foundations of the Catholic faith, for they were an integral part of the mentality of medieval man, and without them Christian teaching could not be accepted.

2.2 The process of Christianization in Rus'

The first centuries of Russian medieval culture. Coming mainly from the period of Kievan Rus, they are permeated with the bright joy of learning something new, discovering the unknown. In the light of the new worldview, the natural world, man himself, and their relationships appeared different before the Slav, not to mention the spiritual, which sanctified all seemingly familiar things and phenomena with a new light. The traditional rather narrow horizons - geographical and historical, social and spiritual - have expanded to infinity.

Realizing all this, and most importantly - himself as the goal and crown of creation, the image of the Creator himself, man, with childish spontaneity, rejoiced at the discovery of the world. His entire life and work are filled with a joyful worldview; his aesthetic consciousness is inspired by it; Finally, it acted as an important stimulus for the rapid rise of culture in Kievan Rus.

Formally, the date of the baptism of Rus' is considered to be 988, although this is the probable year of the baptism of St. Vladimir, his squad, Kyiv and Novgorod with their surroundings. Christianity appeared in Rus' long before Vladimir, and the process of converting all of Rus' dragged on for at least another two centuries; as for the distant ones eastern regions, especially the Volga region and the Urals (not to mention Siberia), then it ended only in the 18th or even 19th century.

By the middle of the 10th century, there were at least two Christian churches in Kyiv, which indicates some kind of Christian activity in Dnieper Rus'. And, of course, the personal baptism of Grand Duchess Olga around 955 probably stimulated a certain number of people, at least from her circle, to accept baptism.

As for Vladimir himself and his internal politics, the act of baptism itself cannot be considered solely from a political point of view. Vladimir, according to the chronicles, after baptism completely changes both his personal lifestyle and his domestic policy. Having allegedly had 800 concubines before baptism, Vladimir becomes a monogamist after baptism, having married the sister of the Byzantine Emperor Basil, Anna. He introduces a system of social protection for the poorest segments of the population, ordering the periodic delivery of free food and clothing to the poor at the expense of the grand ducal treasury. He begins the rapid construction of churches, opening schools with them, and by force forcing his boyars to send their sons to them. Finally, he publishes his church charter, which provided the Church with very wide civil rights and powers.

The Christianization of Rus' had a number of characteristic features and was a long, painful process. Politically and economically, it was beneficial only to the Kyiv princes. The majority of the population did not want to part with the old faith and Christianization was largely adapted to pagan customs. Thus, pagan holidays were timed to coincide with Christian ones, and pagan rituals were largely transferred to Christian rituals. Not only the common people, but often also the clergy took positions of dual faith. Orthodoxy has much in common with Catholicism. Thus, it recognizes the magical power of Christ's atoning sacrifice and the consecrated "gifts of God." Each religious action and objects of worship are considered not just symbols, but also material carriers of the “holy spirit.” The Orthodox faith calls, first of all, not for individual salvation, but for a universal, supra-personal “conciliarity” based on the union of Christians who love each other. Like Catholicism, Orthodoxy divides humanity into laity and church ministers. The laity cannot be saved on their own, without clergy who can atone for their sins from God.

For a Russian, society is a big family, clan. The ruling prince or king is the father of the nation as a family in which his subjects are regarded as his children. Vision of society as one big family, a single organism, was one of the reasons that the concepts of individual freedom did not take deep roots in the culture of the Russian people, in which the place of Western values ​​- pride and honor - was taken by such feminine values ​​as fidelity, humility and a kind of passive fatality. Confirmation of this can be seen in the special veneration of the first Russian saints - Boris and Gleb. They refused to oppose their elder brother Svyatopolk on the grounds that after the death of his father, he legally occupies the throne and submission to his will must be unquestioning. And they went to their deaths like sheep to the slaughter, rejecting the advice of their squads to engage in battle with the forces of Svyatopolk. Whether this really happened is not important. It is important that it was precisely this passive way of behavior that corresponded to popular concepts of holiness.

Let us return to the era of the early centuries of Christianity in Rus'. We must not forget about the colossal size of the country, the small population and the enormous difficulties of communications in such a continental block, where the most reliable way of transportation - rivers - is covered with ice for 3-5 months a year, where a long period of snow melting and ice drift in the spring and gradual freezing in the fall stops any communication between different regions of the country for many months.

Undoubtedly Orthodox Church, one might say, nurtured the Russian person, influenced the formation of his character, and introduced Christian concepts into everyday life. Even in terms of language: no Western language has the same vocabulary influence of the Church as the Orthodox, especially Russians. The Western Church used a language understandable only to a small educated elite, leaving the average resident of medieval Latin Europe in almost complete ignorance of Christian teaching and lack of understanding of everything that happened in the temple. Under these conditions, the Church in the West became elitist.

3 . Culture in Medieval Europe

Knowledge of Latin was a criterion for education. The popular language developed according to different laws than Latin. Concrete, visual images were transmitted and fixed on it. The Latin language expressed abstract judgments, theological and political concepts. The difference in the structure of the vernacular and Latin languages ​​increased the difference between uneducated people and the educated elite.

IN V-X centuries Church books appear on parchment with miniatures depicting animals and people in two-dimensional space (flat and without shadows).

Compared to antiquity, this period was a cultural decline. The works were devoid of grace and sophistication. They were dominated by the cult of rough physical strength. Many achievements of antiquity were forgotten. Thus, the ancient sculpture was lost. Images of humans become primitive. The decline continued from the end of the 9th century to the middle of the 11th century.

4 . Culture in medieval Rus'

IN X-XI centuries In the history of ancient Rus', the “time of the Grand Duke” begins. Although Kievan Rus was free to accept the cultural influences of the West and East, Byzantium had a special influence on the development of ancient Rus'. Byzantine culture was “grafted” onto the tree of Slavic-pagan culture and was the source of Christian cultural traditions, which included legal norms and ideas about government, education, upbringing, science, art, morality and religion. The centers of cultural exchange were Constantinople, Athos, the monasteries of Sinai, Thessaloniki.

In 988, Christianity was officially recognized and declared the state religion. It radically restructured the worldview of the Russians, changed in many ways cultural development ancient Rus'.

Christianity contributed to the emergence and development of a typological community of temple architecture, monumental mosaics and frescoes, icon painting and music. Russian cities began to be decorated with temples and other monumental buildings - fortresses, princely chambers, etc., the homes of townspeople and peasants - with objects of applied art. folk art. One of characteristic features Old Russian architecture was a combination of wooden and stone forms. The construction of temples, which became centers of cultural and intellectual life, acquired particular significance in medieval Russian culture (as well as in Western culture). One of the most famous architectural structures became the majestic Kyiv Cathedral of St. Sophia.

Jewelry craftsmanship developed - casting, production of unique enamel, including the famous Byzantine cloisonné. Jewelers not only borrowed artistic technology, but also invented their own. They used graining, filigree, casting, chasing, silver engraving, and forging.

Temple culture also contributed to the development of monumental painting and icon painting. Regional art schools were created in Kyiv, Novgorod, Yaroslavl, Chernigov, and Rostov the Great. Churches are painted using samples of canons; they were called “tablets” and later “copybooks”. The name of the monk who painted the Kiev-Pechersk Lavra has survived to this day: his name was Alimpius.

The Christianization of Rus' greatly contributed to the emergence of Russian philosophy. The first attempt to comprehend human existence as a whole, in the unity of personal, family and state life, belongs to the great Russian prince Vladimir Monomakh.

The period of the mature Middle Ages became tragic for the Russian people and their young culture. In the 13th century, Rus' found itself under Mongol yoke and lost state independence. The surviving monasteries often remained the only cultural centers.

Let's take a closer look at the ancient Russian book culture and the Russian library of that era.

One of the first Slavic-Russian translations after liturgical books was “The Source of Knowledge” by John of Damascus, from which the Kiev literate drew basic concepts about the philosophical systems of Aristotle, Socrates, Plato, Heraclitus, and Parmenides. So the reading Kievite had an idea of ​​​​ancient philosophy. Damascene then gave information about the basic sciences, dividing them into two categories: 1) theoretical and 2) practical philosophy. To theoretical philosophy, as was then customary, he included: theology, physiology and mathematics, the subdivisions of which were arithmetic, geometry, astronomy and music. Practical philosophy included ethics, economics (housekeeping) and politics.

The less developed north was not silent either. The most outstanding spiritual author of this region, whose writings have survived to this day, was Bishop of Novgorod Luka Zhidyata, apparently one of the baptized Jews, judging by the name. His style cannot be compared with the grace and decoration of the southerners. The Jews are stingy with words, their language is extremely close to colloquial speech, and their ethics are instructive, objective, and concrete.

The main theological expression of the north and northeast, however, was temple building and icon painting, which there achieved both national originality and artistic and spiritual perfection, while in the south and southwest we see the work of Byzantine masters directly or their direct imitation, for which followed the devastation and decline of the 13th-15th centuries. An independent and artistically significant icon-painting tradition did not appear there.

As for the north and northeast, the Tatar-Mongol invasion there destroyed and interrupted traditional Russian crafts for a long time: masons, carvers, and masters of artistic enamel were captured and forcibly taken to Central Asia. But neither the pagan Tatars nor the Muslim Tatars needed icon painters. In addition, the Tatars had great respect for Orthodoxy, exempting the clergy and monasteries from taxes. All this contributed not only to the preservation, but also to the development and improvement of the skills of icon painting and frescoes.

The most remarkable literary work of that era was, of course, “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign,” unsurpassed in the richness of language and poetic imagery in pre-Pushkin Russian literature. It contains strong moments of foreboding of the failure of the campaign based on natural phenomena, but along with this, there are frequent appeals to God, and everything in the work is imbued with a Christian worldview. And the very fact of chanting not a proud victory, but to some extent even the deserved defeat of Igor’s campaign against the Polovtsians in 1185, with the implication that defeat is necessary for humility, is a punishment for arrogance, arrogance - all this is alien to paganism and reflects the Christian life understanding.

Some historians believe that such a masterpiece could not have arisen on bare soil and that others simply did not reach us literary works of the same era and of the same significance. Indeed, it is surprising that “The Lay” reached the 18th century in only one copy, while many other literary works, albeit mostly from a later era, have survived in multiple copies. The explanation for this, perhaps, lies in the fact that the copyists were monks, for whom the fiction of the Lay was alien. They were more interested in the lives of saints, chronicles, sermons, and teachings.

5 . The influence of religion on people's culture

Religion “physically” and spiritually enters the world of culture. Moreover, it constitutes one of its constructive foundations, recorded by historians almost from the advent of “homo sapiens.” On this basis, many theologians, following the outstanding ethnographer J. Fraser, assert: “All culture comes from the temple, from the cult.”

The power of religion in the early stages of cultural development went beyond the boundaries of the latter’s dimension. Up to late Middle Ages The church covered almost all cultural spheres. It was at the same time a school and a university, a club and a library, a lecture hall and a philharmonic society. These cultural institutions are brought to life by the practical needs of society, but their origins are in the bosom of the Church and are largely nourished by it.

While spiritually ruling over its flock, the Church at the same time exercised guardianship and censorship over culture, forcing it to serve the cult. This spiritual dictatorship was especially felt in the medieval states of the Catholic world, where the Church dominated politically and legally. And almost everywhere it dominated morality and art, education and upbringing. Church tutelage and censorship, like any dictatorship, did not at all stimulate cultural progress: freedom is the air of culture, without which it suffocates. While noting the positive aspects of religious influence on the realities of culture, we should not forget about this.

Perhaps religion had the greatest influence on the formation and development of national identity and the culture of an ethnic group.

Church rites often continue in the institutions of folk life and the calendar. At times it is difficult to separate the secular element from national traditions, customs and rituals from the religious. What, for example, are Semik and Maslenitsa for the Russian people, Navruz for the Azerbaijanis and Tajiks? Secular-folk and church-canonical are inextricably intertwined in these holidays. God bless (thank you) - is this a religious or secular formula for a wake - is this a purely church ritual? What about caroling?

The awakening of national self-awareness is usually associated with a revival of interest in the national religion. This is exactly what is happening in Russia.

In Europe, schools for monks at monasteries became cultural islands. In the Middle Ages, architecture occupied a leading place. This was caused primarily by the urgent need for the construction of temples.

A further cultural stimulus was the growth of cities, centers of trade and crafts. A new phenomenon was urban culture, which gave rise to the Romanesque style. The Romanesque style arose as a strengthening of the authority of the Roman Empire, necessary for royalty and the church. The Romanesque style was best personified by large cathedrals located on hills, as if towering above everything earthly.

The Gothic style rejects the ponderous, fortress-like Romanesque cathedrals. The attributes of the Gothic style were pointed arches and slender towers rising to the sky. The vertical composition of the building, the rapid upward thrust of the pointed arches and other architectural structures expressed the desire for God and the dream of a higher life. Geometry and arithmetic were understood abstractly, through the prism of knowledge of God, who created the world and arranged everything “by measure, number and weight.” Every detail in the cathedral had a special meaning. The side walls symbolized the Old and New Testaments. Pillars and columns personified the apostles and prophets carrying the vault, portals - the threshold of heaven. The dazzling interior of the Gothic cathedral personified a heavenly paradise.

Early Christianity inherited from antiquity an admiration for the products of creativity and contempt for the people who created them. But gradually, under the influence of Christian ideas about the beneficial, elevating significance of work, this attitude changed. In the monasteries of that time, it was believed to combine activities leading to communication with God, to insight into his essence, such as divine reading, prayers, and manual labor. It was in the monasteries that many crafts and arts were developed. Art was considered a godly and noble activity; it was practiced not only by ordinary monks, but also by the highest church elite. Medieval arts: painting, architecture, jewelry - were founded within the walls of monasteries, under the shadow of the Christian church.

In the 12th century, interest in art increased significantly. This is due to the general technical, economic and scientific progress of society. The practical activity of a person, his intelligence, and the ability to invent something new are beginning to be valued much higher than before. The accumulated knowledge begins to be systematized into a hierarchy, at the top of which God continues to remain. Art that combines high practical skills and reflection of images of sacred tradition receives a special status in medieval culture.

Attitudes towards art in the Middle Ages underwent great changes. Thus, during the early Middle Ages (V-VIII centuries), ancient ideas about art dominated. Art is classified into theoretical, practical and creative. Since the 8th century, Christian ideas have actively intertwined and interacted with non-religious ones. The main goal of art is the pursuit of divine beauty, which is embodied in the harmony and unity of nature.

Christianity, spreading to all spheres of the life of medieval man, naturally determined the direction and content of artistic creativity and limited art with its dogmas. Artistic creativity could not spread beyond their borders. It was significantly limited by iconographic tradition. The main goal of creativity was the preservation and exaltation of Christian teaching. All medieval culture was subordinated to the only reality - God. God has true subjectivity; a person depicted in works of art striving for an ideal must subordinate his will to God. Everything is in God: fate is determined by God, the world is explained by God. Christianity determined the preferred themes and forms of art. In literature, a favorite genre is the lives of saints; in sculpture - images of Christ, the Mother of God, saints; in painting - an icon; in architecture - a cathedral. Themes of heaven, purgatory and hell are also common. The artist had to capture the beauty of the divine world order in his works, coordinating his vision with the ideas of the Christian clergy. Human creativity is relative, limited, and therefore must be subordinated to the will of God. There can be no creativity outside of God. main topic in art - Christ and his teachings.

Works of art should not only bring sensual pleasure from the contemplation of beautiful and harmonious beauty, they should educate a person in the spirit of striving for God. Godliness is the most important thing spiritual quality awakened by art.

In Rus' in the 15th century, art schools appeared, architecture and icon painting flourished. A famous representative of the golden age of the Novgorod monumental school was the Greek master Theophanes the Greek. He did not use iconographic “copybooks”; his works were deeply original and uniquely individual. He painted more than 40 churches. Monumental and decorative works, which stood on a par with other greatest creations of world art, were created in the 15th century by Andrei Rublev. In memory of Sergius of Radonezh, he wrote his most perfect work - the Trinity icon. Thus, under Ivan III, the Assumption Cathedral, the Annunciation Cathedral, the Chamber of Facets were erected, and the walls of the Kremlin were built. The original national spirit was embodied in St. Basil's Cathedral.

Conclusion

And even in our time, if you carefully analyze the life of peasants, you can find some traces of the Middle Ages in their life.

Famous Gothic cathedrals still amaze people today; among them, Notre Dame Cathedral, the cathedrals of Reims, Chartres, Amiens, and Saint-Denis are especially famous. N.V. Gogol (1809-1852) wrote: “Gothic architecture is a phenomenon that has never before been produced by human taste and imagination. ... Entering the sacred darkness of this temple, it is very natural to feel the involuntary horror of the presence of a shrine, which the daring mind of a person does not dare to touch.”

Thus, the Middle Ages, on the basis of the Christian tradition, created a mass person who was interested in solving the problems of equality, freedom, and was concerned about the system of legal and other guarantees of individual existence.

The artist was a mediator between people and God. It was in this way that the medieval model of the world developed through the idea of ​​exaltation, through an appeal to man the creator.

This is an integral principle of the European model of the world, opposite to the Eastern one - the principle of stability, harmony, naturalness.

Old Russian traditionalism was strengthened by Orthodox traditionalism. The community, society mattered more than the fate of an individual.

The process of formation of ancient Russian culture was not just a process of simple forward movement. It included ups and downs, periods of long stagnation, decline and cultural breakthroughs. But in general, this era represents a cultural layer that determined the subsequent development of all Russian culture.

The Church leaves milestones in the material culture of the people through monastic production and temple construction. The production of cult decorations and vestments, the printing of books, the heritage of icon painting, frescoes.

From the very beginning of its existence, the Church had to determine its position in relation to society. At first she represented a minority, often persecuted and persecuted. Small but rapidly growing Christian communities sought to develop special style life based on love for God and one's neighbor. There is no doubt that Christianity has had a huge impact on society. Thanks to the Church, the first hospitals and universities appeared in medieval Europe. The Church built great cathedrals and provided patronage to artists and musicians. Obviously, religion and culture are not identical. Religion takes shape earlier and reshapes social consciousness accordingly. New cult-cultural archetypes begin to form, which form the foundation of a new culture. Christian culture acquired its adequate appearance (or rather Face) only in mature Byzantium and Ancient Rus' and in medieval Western Europe (Latin-Catholic branch). It was then that all the main spheres of human life and spiritual-material creativity, all the main social institutions were completely embraced by the Christian spirit; religion, church cult, Christian worldview have become the main culture-creating factors

Literature

1. Viktor Bychkov 2000 years of Christian culture sub specie aesthetica. In 2 vols. Volume 1 Early Christianity. Byzantium. M. - St. Petersburg: University Book, 1999. 575 p.

2. Viktor Bychkov 2000 years of Christian culture sub specie aesthetica. In 2 vols. Volume 2 Slavic world. Ancient Rus'. Russia. M. - St. Petersburg: University Book, 1999. 527 p.

3. Religion in history and culture: Textbook for universities / M.G. Pismanik, A.V. Vertinsky, S.P. Demyanenko and others; edited by prof. M.G. Pismanika. - M.: Culture and Sports, UNITY, 1998. -430 p.

4. John Young Christianity / trans. from English K. Savelyeva. - M.: FAIR PRESS, 2000. -384 p.

Christianity in Europe in the Middle Ages

The history of the European Middle Ages is divided into the early Middle Ages (V–XI centuries), mature (XII–XIII centuries) and later (XIV–XVI centuries). Thus, the Middle Ages also partially included the Renaissance, at least the Italian one, which dates back to the 14th–16th centuries. In other European countries, the Renaissance began in the 16th–17th centuries. These centuries are also called the era of the Reformation - Protestant reforms and religious wars.

V–VIII centuries - the period of the “great migration of peoples”. By the 9th century. The borders of European states were basically established. Frankish kingdom in the 6th century. under the Merovingians and in the 9th century. under Charlemagne (the Carolingian dynasty is named after him) it was a huge empire. In the 10th century under the new Saxon dynasty, the Holy Roman Empire of the German people arises. In the 9th century. a single kingdom of England is formed.

In 1054, the Christian Church split into Roman Catholic and Greek Orthodox, and at the end of the 11th century. The era of the Crusades begins, introducing the European peoples to the culture of Islam and Byzantium. During the Renaissance, the formation of national states took place. Spain, after the discovery and conquest of America, became in the 15th century. the most powerful and influential state in Europe and remains so until the defeat of its Invincible Armada (a flotilla of several hundred ships) by the British, after which England becomes the “mistress of the seas.” Italy during the Renaissance represented many independent states, of which the most famous were Florence - the birthplace of the Renaissance, Venice, Milan, and Genoa.

We learn about the myths of European peoples from the medieval epic, the basis of which they formed. In the epic, which grew out of the heroic song, the fairy-tale-fantastic (mythological) is not separated from the real. The most famous German epic is “The Song of the Nibelungs.” The text goes back to beginning of XIII centuries, but the origin is clearly ancient. There are various time layers and contradictions between them, which is normal for an epic. The Nibelungs are fabulous creatures, the northern guardians of a treasure for which they are fighting. They are heroes in the service of the knight Siegfried, who was villainously killed. In the second part of the epic, the representatives of the Burgundian kingdom, defeated in 437 by the nomadic Huns led by Attila, are called the Nibelungs.

By the 11th century. all of Western and Central Europe accepted Christianity and submitted to the spiritual authority of the Pope. Another double borrowing - the barbarians defeated Rome, but took Christianity, which itself defeated Rome, which conquered Judea.

Western European culture of the Middle Ages, according to D. Feibleman, belongs to the religious type of culture with the dominant institution of the Catholic Church. The religious type of culture, D. Feibleman believes, has always played a prohibitive or limiting role in relation to cultural progress and has been conservative.

Monastic orders were of great importance in the religious life of Europe, of which the most significant were the Franciscan Order, founded by the Christian preacher Francis of Assisi (1181 or 1182–1226), the Dominican Order, founded by the Spanish monk St. Dominic in 1215, and the Benedictine Order, founded by St. Benedict (V–VI centuries).

For those who wanted to completely devote themselves to God, monasteries were created in which, with the help of asceticism, considered as a method of spiritual creativity, and not just mortification of the flesh through fasting and faith, the monks communicated with God through prayer, understood as “smart work.” Asceticism in Christianity is aimed at fighting passions, and not pleasures, like the Cynics and Stoics. Monasticism was as characteristic of the Middle Ages as chivalry, with its own special moral code. The most strict monks retired to monasteries, becoming hermits. Monasticism was inspired by the struggle of the spirit with the flesh as the source of sin. “The voice of the flesh blinds the spirit,” said Pope Gregory the Great. In the world we meet the so-called blessed ones, or fools for Christ's sake.

People “not of this world” who could convey to others their relationship with God are called mystics. One of the most famous in the history of Christianity was M. Eckhart (1260–1327). In his sermons, he divided man into external and internal. The main virtue that, according to Eckhart, most of all connects a person with God is solitude, detachment from the world. Solitude is insensitivity to everything except God. Solitude is higher than love: love is when a person loves God, solitude is when God loves a person. In accordance with the entire Christian tradition, Eckhart has a positive assessment of suffering, calling it the beast that rushes to solitude faster than others. Eckhart supplemented the words with which Christ’s Sermon on the Mount began - “Blessed are the poor in spirit” - with his own saying: “Blessed are the poor in will.” When a person desires nothing for himself, he merges with the will of God, Eckhart believed.

The word (“In the beginning was the Word”) acquires great importance. Augustine the Blessed, a Christian theologian and church leader of the 4th century, emphasized: everything is created by the Word. There is not only the influence of Platonism, but also the mysticism of the identity of words and things. Preaching becomes a means of education and a form literary creativity. The genre of the lives of saints, which originated in Ancient Rome; first short stories about individual episodes, then more and more extensive ones. Apocrypha also occupied an important place in Christian literature - books describing the life and death of Jesus Christ, the apostles and other characters of Sacred History, which were not included in the New Testament by the Ecumenical Councils.

Christianity became the official religion of the Roman Empire under the ruler Constantine I the Great (272-337). In 313, he officially allowed this religion on the territory of his country, issuing a decree equalizing Christianity in rights with other religions, and in 324 it became the official religion of the united Roman Empire. In 330, Constantine moved his capital to the city of Byzantium, which would be renamed Constantinople in his honor.

Time period of the Early Christian Church

In 325, the First was held at Nicaea (now Iznik, Turkey), at which the basic dogmas of Christianity were accepted, and thus put an end to the debate about the official religion. The early Christian church, or apostolic age, also ends at the Council of Nicaea. The starting date is considered to be the 30s of the 1st century AD, when nascent Christianity was considered a sect of the Jewish religion. The persecution of Christians began not from the pagans, but from the Jews. The first martyr of the Christian Church was executed by the Jews in 34.

Oppression of Christians and the end of persecution

The period of the early Christian church was a time of oppression of Christians by all empires. The most difficult was the Diocletian Persecution, which lasted from 302 to 311. This Roman ruler set out to completely destroy the nascent faith. Diocletian himself died in 305, but his bloody work was continued by his heirs. The "Great Persecution" was legitimized by a verdict issued in 303.

The history of the Christian church has not known great oppression - Christians were sacrificed by the dozens, driving their families into the arena with lions. And although some scientists consider the number of victims of Diocletian’s persecution to be exaggerated, all the same, the figure mentioned is impressive - 3,500 people. There were many times more tortured and exiled righteous people. Constantine the Great put an end to ostracism and gave birth to one of the main religions of mankind. Having given Christianity a special status, Constantine ensured rapid development of this religion. Byzantium first becomes the center of Christianity, and later the capital of Orthodoxy, in which, as in some other churches, this ruler is canonized as a saint equal to the apostles. Catholicism does not consider him a saint.

Connection of times

Churches were also built with donations from Constantine's mother, Empress Helena. Under Constantine, the Temple of Hagia Sophia was founded in Constantinople, a city named after the emperor. But the first and most beautiful is considered to be the one that the Bible talks about. However, many of the first religious buildings have not survived. The oldest Christian temple on earth that has survived to this day is located in the French city of Poitiers, the main settlement of the Vienne department. This is a baptistery built in the 4th century. That is, even before the history of the Early Middle Ages began, during which the construction of churches, temples and cathedrals became widespread.

Busy historical period

It is generally accepted that the Early Middle Ages lasted 5 centuries, from 476 until the end of the 10th century. But some scientists consider the beginning of this first period of the Middle Ages to be precisely the year 313 - the time of the end of the persecution of followers of the Christian religion.

The most difficult historical period, including the Great Migration of Peoples, the emergence of Byzantium, the strengthening of Muslim influence, and the Arab invasion of Spain, was completely based on the Christian religion. The Church in the Early Middle Ages was the main political, cultural, educational and economic institution for many tribes and peoples inhabiting Europe. All schools were run by the church, monasteries were cultural and educational centers. In addition, already in the 4th century all the monasteries were very rich and powerful. However, the church not only sowed what was reasonable, good, and eternal. Dissent was subjected to the most severe persecution. Pagan altars and temples were destroyed, heretics were physically destroyed.

Faith as a stronghold of the state

The Christian Church experienced its first heyday in the early Middle Ages, and by the end of the period it had somewhat lost its ground. And only later, in the following periods of the Middle Ages, a new rise of the Christian religion began. At the beginning of the 5th century, Ireland became one of the centers of Christianity. Frankish state, which significantly expanded its territories under Clovis from the Merovingian clan, adopted a new religion under him. In the 5th century, under this ruler, there were already 250 monasteries on the territory of the Frankish state. The Church becomes the most powerful organization with the full patronage of Clovis. The Christian Church in the Early Middle Ages played a cementing role. The flock that accepted the faith rallied, at the direction of the church, around the monarch, the country became much stronger and more impregnable to external enemies. For the same reasons, other European countries accepted the new faith. In the 9th century, Rus' was baptized. Christianity was gaining strength, it penetrated into Asia and up the Nile (the territory of modern Sudan).

Cruel methods

But for various reasons - both objective (the growing strength of Islam) and subjective (the reign of the descendants of Clovis, nicknamed the “lazy kings” who destroyed the Frankish state), Christianity temporarily lost its position. The Arabs briefly occupied part of the Iberian Peninsula. The papacy has become very weak. The Christian Church in the Early Middle Ages became the religious ideology of feudalism.

Born in antiquity, Christianity, which survived it, stood at the cradle of feudalism, serving it faithfully and justifying oppression and social inequality “by the will of the Lord.” In order to keep the masses in subjection, the church resorted to intimidation, especially fears of the afterlife. Those who disobeyed were declared servants of the devil, heretics, which later led to the creation of the Inquisition.

The positive role of the church

But the Christian Church in the Early Middle Ages smoothed out social conflicts, disagreements and antagonisms whenever possible. One of the main tenets of the church is that everyone is equal before God. The church had no open hostility towards the peasants, who were the main labor force. It called for mercy towards the disadvantaged and oppressed. This was the official position of the church, albeit sometimes hypocritical.

In the Early Middle Ages, with an almost complete illiteracy of the population, in the absence of any other means of communication, the church played the role of a communication center - people came here, here they communicated and learned all the news.

Cruel inculcation of Christianity

The history of the Christian Church, like that of any other great religion, is extraordinarily rich. All masterpieces of art and literature over many centuries were created with the support of the church, for its needs and on its subjects. It also influenced the policies pursued by states; the Crusades alone are worth it. True, they began in the 11th century, but in the period from the 5th to the 10th centuries, Christianity was implanted not only by the power of persuasion and missionary or economic considerations. Weapons played a very important role. Cruelly suppressed by the pagans during the period of its inception, the Christian faith was very often, including during the conquest of the New World, implanted with bayonets.

Page in the history of mankind

The entire history of the Middle Ages is full of wars. The Early Middle Ages, or the Early Feudal Period, is the time when feudalism arose and took shape as a socio-political formation. By the end of the 10th century, feudalization of the lands was practically over.

Despite the fact that the term “feudalism” is often synonymous with obscurantism and backwardness, in it, as in the church of this period, there were positive features, contributing to the progressive development of society, which led to the emergence of the Renaissance.

Topic 14. Christianity in the Middle Ages.

The most important feature medieval culture has a special roleChristian doctrine and the Christian church. Characteristic is religion. In conditions of general declineculture immediately after the destruction of the Roman Empire, only the church for manycenturies remained the only social institution common to all countries, tribes andstates of Europe. The church was the dominant political institution, but stillmore significant was the influence that the church had directly onconsciousness of the population. In conditions of difficult and meager life, against the backdrop of extremely limitedand most often unreliable knowledge about the world, about its structure, about those acting in itforces and laws. Let's add to this the emotional appeal of Christianity, with its warmth, universally significant preaching of love and understandable norms of social life. With the romantic elation and ecstasy of the plot aboutan atoning sacrifice, finally, with a statement about the equality of all people without exception in the highest authority, in order to at least approximately assess the contribution of Christianity to the worldview, to the worldview of medieval Europeans.

This picture of the world. Wholly determined the mentality of believing villagers and townspeople, was based mainly on images and interpretations of the Bible. In the Middle Agesthe starting point for the explanation of the world was the complete, unconditional opposition of God and nature, Heaven and Earth, soul and body.

The medieval European was, of course, deeply religious. There is peace in his mindwas seen as a kind of arena of confrontation between the forces of heaven and hell, good and evil. At this consciousness of people was deeply magical, everyone was absolutely sure ofthe possibility of miracles and took everything the Bible said literally.

The medieval European, including the highest strata of society, right up to kings andemperors, was illiterate. The literacy rate was appallingly low andeducation even of the clergy in the parishes. Only towards the end XV century, the church realized the need to have educated personnel and began to open theological seminaries. The level of education of parishioners was generally minimal. The mass of the laity listenedsemi-literate priests. At the same time, the Bible itself was forbidden for ordinary lay people; its texts were considered too complex and inaccessible for the direct perception of ordinary parishioners. Only clergy were allowed to interpret it. Mass medieval culture is a culture of booklessness. She relied not on the printed word, but on oral sermons and exhortations. She existed through the consciousness of the illiterate person. It was a culture of prayers, fairy tales, and myths of magic spells.

At the same time, the meaning of the word written, and especially sounded, in medieval culture was unusually great. Prayers perceived functionally asspells, sermons, biblical stories, magic formulas - all this tooformed the medieval mentality. People are accustomed to intensely peering into the surrounding reality, perceiving it as a kind of text, as a system of symbols, containing some higher meaning. These symbols - words had to be able to recognize andextract divine meaning from them. This, in particular, explains manyfeatures of artistic medieval culture, designed for perception inspace of just such, deeply religious and symbolic, verballygun mentality. Even painting there was, first of all, a revealed word, like and the Bible itself. The word was universal, approached everything, explained everything, hid behind all phenomena as their hidden meaning. Therefore, for the medieval consciousness,medieval mentality, culture, first of all, expressed the meanings, the soul of man, brought a person closer to God, as if transported to another world, to a place different from earthly existence space. And this space looked the way it was described in the Bible, lives saints, the writings of the church fathers and the sermons of priests. Accordingly, the behavior of the medieval European and all his activities were determined.

Christianity was the core of European culture and provided transition from antiquity to the Middle Ages. For a long time In the historical and cultural literature, the view of the Middle Ages as the “dark ages” was dominant. The foundations of this position were laid by the Enlightenment. However, the cultural history of Western European society was not so clear, one thing is certain - all cultural life Medieval Europe of this period was largely determined by Christianity, which already in the 4th century. from persecuted it becomes the state religion in the Roman Empire.

From a movement in opposition to official Rome, Christianity turns into a spiritual, ideological support of the Roman state. At this time, at the Ecumenical Church Councils, a number of leading provisions of Christian doctrine were adopted - symbol of faith. These provisions are declared mandatory for all Christians. The basis of Christian teaching was the belief in the resurrection of Christ, the resurrection of the dead, and the Divine Trinity.

The concept of the Divine Trinity was interpreted as follows. God is one in all three persons: God the Father - the creator of the world, God the Son, Jesus Christ - the Redeemer of sins and God the Holy Spirit - were absolutely equal and coeternal with each other. Ilyina E.A. Culturology / E.A. Ilyina, M.E. Burov. - M.: MIEMP, 2009. - P. 49.

Despite the strong discrepancy between the ideal and the real, the social and everyday life people in the Middle Ages was an attempt, a desire to embody Christian ideals in practical activities. Therefore, let us consider the ideals to which many efforts of people of that time were directed, and note the features of the reflection of these ideals in real life.

In the Middle Ages it was formed theological concept of culture(Greek theos - god), according to which God is the center of the universe, its active, creativity, the source and cause of everything that exists. This is due to the fact that God is the absolute value. The medieval picture of the world, the religiosity of this culture is fundamentally and deeply different from all previous ones, i.e. pagan cultures. God in Christianity is One, Personal and Spiritual, that is, absolutely immaterial. God is also endowed with many virtuous qualities: God is All-Good, God is Love, God is Absolute Good.

Thanks to such a spiritual and absolutely positive understanding of God, man acquires special significance in the religious picture of the world. Man, the image of God, the greatest value after God, occupies a dominant place on Earth. The main thing in a person is the soul. One of the outstanding achievements of the Christian religion is the gift of free will to man, i.e. the right to choose between good and evil, God and the devil. Due to the presence of dark forces and evil, Medieval culture is often called dualistic (dual): at one pole there is God, angels, saints, at the other there is the Devil and his dark army (demons, sorcerers, heretics).

The tragedy of man is that he can abuse his free will. This is what happened to the first man - Adam. He deviated from the prohibitions of God towards the temptations of the devil. This process is called the Fall. Sin is the result of man's deviation from God. It is because of sin that suffering, war, disease and death entered the world.

According to Christian teaching, a person cannot return to God on his own. For this, a person needs an intermediary - a Savior. The saviors in the Medieval Christian picture of the world are Christ and His Church (in Western Europe - Catholic). Therefore, along with the category of sin, the problem of saving the soul of each person occupied a large role in the picture of the world of the Middle Ages.

Thus, in Christian ideology, the place of man is taken by God the creator, and the place of the concept of “culture,” so valued in antiquity, is taken by the concept of “cult.” From an etymological point of view, this concept also has the meaning of cultivation and improvement. However, the main emphasis in this concept is on care, worship and reverence. This refers to the veneration of a higher, supernatural power that controls the destinies of the world and man. According to the Christian concept, the meaning of human life is to prepare for the true life, the posthumous, otherworldly life. Therefore, everyday, earthly, real life loses its self-worth. It is considered only as preparation for eternal life, after death. The main emphasis is on the afterlife, afterlife retribution. Salvation is not given to everyone, but only to those who live according to the Gospel commandments.

The whole life of a person in the Middle Ages stands between two points of reference - sin and salvation. To escape from the first and achieve last person the following conditions are given: following the Christian commandments, doing good deeds, avoiding temptations, confessing one’s sins, active prayer and church life not only for monks, but also for laity.

Thus, in Christianity the requirements for moral life person. Basic Christian values ​​- Faith Hope Love.

In the medieval era, the foundation of culture was based on an irrational (non-rational, super-rational) principle - faith. Faith is placed above reason. Reason serves faith, deepens and clarifies it. Therefore, all types of spiritual culture - philosophy, science, law, morality, art - serve religion and are subordinate to it.

Art was also subordinated to the theocentric idea. It sought to strengthen the religious worldview. There are many scenes of the Last Judgment: fear of the inevitable punishment for sins is brought up. A special tense psychological atmosphere. But there is also a powerful folk culture of laughter, where all these values ​​have been subjected to comic rethinking. The teaching of the church was the starting point of all thinking, all sciences (law, natural science, philosophy, logic) - everything was brought into line with Christianity. The clergy was the only educated class, and it was the church for a long period that determined educational policy.

All V-IX centuries. schools in Western European countries were in the hands of the church. The church drew up a curriculum and selected students. the main task monastic schools was defined as the education of church ministers. The Christian Church preserved and used elements of secular culture left over from the ancient education system. In church schools, disciplines inherited from antiquity were taught - “seven liberal arts": grammar, rhetoric, dialectics with elements of logic, arithmetic, geometry, astronomy and music.

There were also secular schools, where young men were trained who were not intended for a church career, children from noble families studied there (many such schools were opened in England in the second half of the 9th century). In the 11th century was opened in Italy on the basis of the Bologna Law School first university ( 1088), which became the largest center for the study of Roman and canon law. Students and professors united in universities in order to achieve independence from the city and have the right of self-government. The university was divided into fraternities - an association of students from a particular country, and faculties where they acquired this or that knowledge. In England, the first university was opened in Oxford in 1167, then the university in Cambridge. The most prominent university scientist in England in the 13th century. There was Roger Bacon (about 1214-1292), who put forward reason and experience rather than church authorities as the main method of knowledge. The largest and first of the universities in France was the Paris Sorbonne (1160). It united four faculties: general education, medicine, law and theology. Just like other large universities, students from all European countries flocked here. Right there.

Medieval university science was called scholasticism ( from gr. school, scientist). Its the most characteristic features there was a desire to rely on authorities, primarily church ones, an underestimation of the role of experience as a method of knowledge, a combination of theological and dogmatic premises with rationalistic principles, and an interest in formal and logical problems.

A new and extremely important phenomenon testifying to the development of urban culture was the creation in cities non-church schools: These were private schools, financially independent of the church. The teachers of these schools lived off the fees collected from the students. Since that time, there has been a rapid spread of literacy among the urban population. Outstanding master of France in the 12th century. was Peter Abelard (1079-1142), philosopher, theologian and poet, who founded whole line non-church schools. He owns the famous essay “Yes and No,” in which issues of dialectical logic were developed. In his lectures, which were extremely popular among the townspeople, he asserted the primacy of knowledge over faith. Right there.

In Christianity, a different understanding of man is formed in comparison with the ancient one. The ancient ideal is the harmony of spirit and body, physical and spiritual. The Christian ideal is the victory of the spirit over the body, asceticism. In Christianity, priority is given to the soul, the spiritual principle. And a derogatory attitude is formed towards the body. It was believed that the body was sinful, perishable, a source of temptation, a temporary refuge for the soul. And the soul is eternal, immortal, perfect, it is a particle of the divine principle in man. A person must take care first of all of his soul.

Speaking about the differences between ancient and medieval ideals, we should pay attention to this point. The ancient ideal - a harmonious personality - was completely feasible, achievable, real. The medieval ideal, like the horizon, was unattainable. Because the medieval ideal is God, absolute perfection (goodness, goodness, love, justice). Man is always sinful, and he only approaches this ideal to one degree or another. Therefore, the cultural development of man is understood as a constant elevation, ascent to the ideal, God, the absolute, as a process of overcoming the sinful and establishing the divine in man.

Played a huge role in the life of society of that time monasticism: the monks took upon themselves the obligations of “leaving the world,” celibacy, and renunciation of property. However, already in the 6th century, monasteries turned into strong, often very rich centers, owning movable and immovable property. Many monasteries were centers of education and culture. So, in England at the end of the 7th - beginning of the 8th century. The Venerable Bede lived in one of the monasteries, Ibid. one of the most educated people of his time, the author of the first major work on English history. From the middle of the 12th century. The most mobile and educated part of the population, receptive to spiritual food, is concentrated in rapidly developing cities. The mendicant orders were part of urban spiritual movements and at the same time a reaction to their heretical excesses. One of the most important aspects of the orders’ activities was pastoral service, primarily preaching and confession. From their midst came the greatest theologians of the Middle Ages - Albertus Magnus and Thomas Aquinas.

Although medieval culture had ideological, spiritual and artistic integrity, the dominance of Christianity did not make it completely homogeneous. One of its essential features was the emergence in it secular culture, which reflected the cultural self-awareness and spiritual ideals of the military-aristocratic class of medieval society - chivalry and the new social stratum that emerged in the mature Middle Ages - the townspeople. Koryakina, E.P. Culture of medieval Western Europe: features, values, ideals[Electronic resource] / E.P. Koryakina. - Access mode: http: //avt. miem.edu.ru/Kafedra/Kt/Publik/posob_4_kt.html#Christianity as the main factor in the formation of medieval culture

Secular culture, being one of the components of Western European medieval culture, remained Christian in nature. At the same time, the very image and lifestyle of the knights and townspeople predetermined their focus on earthly things, developed special views, ethical standards, traditions, and cultural values. They recorded human abilities and values ​​necessary for military service and communication among feudal lords. In contrast to the asceticism defended by the church, the knightly culture glorified earthly joys and values, such as love, beauty, and service to a beautiful lady.

A special cultural layer of the Middle Ages was represented by folk culture. Throughout the Middle Ages, remnants of paganism and elements of folk religion were preserved in folk culture. She opposed official culture and developed her own view of the world, which reflected the close connection of man with nature. Centuries after the adoption of Christianity, Western European peasants continued to secretly pray and make sacrifices to the old pagan shrines. Under the influence of Christianity, many pagan deities were transformed into evil demons. Special magical rituals were performed in case of crop failure, drought, etc. Ancient beliefs in sorcerers and werewolves persisted among peasants throughout the Middle Ages. To combat evil spirits Various amulets were widely used, both verbal (all kinds of spells) and material (amulets, talismans). In almost every medieval village one could meet a witch who could not only cause damage, but also heal.

Laughing folk culture, folk holidays and carnivals fed heretical movements and, along with knightly culture, represented the secular, worldly principle in the culture of the Middle Ages. However, just like in society, there was a hierarchy of values ​​in culture. Different cultures were valued differently. In the first place was religious, church culture. Courtly, knightly culture was recognized as necessary, but less valuable. Pagan folk culture was viewed as sinful and base. Thus, in the Middle Ages, religious culture subjugated all types of secular culture.

The most vivid and deeply Christian worldview was conveyed in the art of the Middle Ages. The artists of the Middle Ages paid their main attention to the otherworldly, Divine world; their art was considered as the Bible for the illiterate, as a means of introducing a person to God and comprehending His essence. The Catholic cathedral served as an artistic and religious embodiment of the image of the entire universe.

The Early Middle Ages is the period of dominance of the Romanesque style. Romanesque architecture is perceived as a heavy, oppressive, great silence, personifying the stability of a person’s worldview, his “horizontalism,” “groundedness.” From the end of the 13th century. becomes the leader Gothic style. For its lightness and delicacy it was called frozen, silent music, “a symphony in stone.” Unlike the harsh monolithic, imposing Romanesque temples and castles, Gothic cathedrals are decorated with carvings and decorations, many sculptures, they are full of light, directed into the sky, their towers rose up to 150 meters. Masterpieces of this style are cathedrals Notre Dame of Paris, Reims, Cologne.

Thus, the culture of the Middle Ages in Western Europe marked the beginning of a new direction in the history of civilization - the establishment of Christianity not only as a religious teaching, but also as a new worldview and attitude that significantly influenced all subsequent cultural eras. Although, as we know, the Christian ideal of man was not realized in medieval society. Now we understand that the ideal may not correspond to the logic of life itself, the historical reality underlying culture. Right there.

Another thing is important - we judge a culture by the ideals that it has put forward and which have shaped the mentality of its people, which cements the unity of the cultural tradition. Despite all the contradictory nature of the sociocultural process, medieval culture was characterized by deep psychologism and keen attention to human soul, inner world person.

The Middle Ages should not be viewed as a period of failure in the development of Western European culture from antiquity to modern times. Despite all the inconsistency of the cultural process, it is more legitimate to assert that it was at this time that the most important features of the Western European Christian type of culture took shape on the basis of the widespread spread of Christianity. Radugin A.A. Culturology / A.A. Radugin. - M.: Center, 2001. - P. 170. . Spiritual and moral crisis European civilization allows you to see the merits of medieval culture, makes you rethink the most important achievements of its spiritual culture, its values ​​and ideals - the ideas of mercy, selfless virtue, condemnation of acquisitiveness, the idea of ​​the universality of man and many others.

Christianity culture Middle Ages