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Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………………. 3
Chapter 1. Definition of the concept of psychologism in literature ………………….. 5
Chapter 2. Psychologism in the works of L. N. Tolstoy …………...……………… 7
Chapter 2. Psychologism in the works of A.P. Chekhov………………………. 13
Conclusion………………………………………………………………………………... 20
List of used literature……………………………………. 22
Introduction
All the richest Russian classics consist of two large trends - the development of the psychologism of heroes in their relationship to the world and other people and the development of internal psychologism, aimed at analyzing one’s own inner world, one’s soul. The first, of course, most clearly personifies the genius of Lev Nikolaevich Tolstoy. The second is the no less significant genius of Anton Pavlovich Chekhov. But if Tolstoy is the personification of a showcase Russia, more elite and secular, then Chekhov in his work showed a different Russia - provincial Russia; If L. N. Tolstoy focused attention on great, strong-spirited personalities, then A. P. Chekhov was more interested in the spiritual world “ little man" Essentially, we are talking about two sides.
It would be rash to say that the psychologism of A.P. Chekhov and L.N. Tolstoy has not been studied at all in literary criticism. We can rely on the research of A. B. Esin, P. Kropotkin, and other researchers.
However, at the same time, it seems interesting to consider the features of the psychologism of these writers in interrelation, to compare the features of each of them’s approach to describing the inner world of heroes, their mental characteristics and psychological portraits.
It is precisely this comprehensive study of the features of psychologism in the works of A. P. Chekhov and L. N. Tolstoy that is purpose our research.
Accordingly, as tasks the following are set:
1) define the term “psychologism”, identify the main approaches to its interpretation by various researchers;
2) analyze the work of L. N. Tolstoy to identify features in the description of the psychological aspects of the interaction of heroes with people around them;
2) characterize the main points in A.P. Chekhov’s description of the inner world of the heroes;
4) compare characteristics the creative method of writers when they depict the internal feelings and emotions, thoughts and experiences of a literary character.
Work structure generally corresponds to the assigned tasks. The work consists of an introduction, three chapters of the main part, a conclusion and a list of references.
Chapter 1. Definition of the concept of psychologism in literature
Psychologism is a literary term that is traditionally attributed to several authors, primarily to L.N. Tolstoy and M.F. Dostoevsky, then to I. Turgenev with his “secret psychologism.” And, of course, psychologism is most clearly manifested in the works of A.P. Chekhov. Psychologism in literature is a complete, detailed and deep depiction of the feelings and emotions, thoughts and experiences of a literary character.
One of the main attractive features fiction- her ability to reveal the secrets of a person’s inner world, to express spiritual movements as accurately and vividly as a person cannot do in everyday, ordinary life. “Psychologism is one of the secrets of the long historical life of the literature of the past: when speaking about the human soul, it speaks to each reader about himself.” Esin A. B. Psychologism of Russian classical literature. M., 1988.
Psychologism is a stylistic characteristic literary works, which depicts in detail and deeply
the inner world of the characters, i.e. their sensations, thoughts, feelings and, possibly, a subtle and convincing psychological analysis of mental phenomena and behavior is given. Psychological Dictionary / Ed. V. P. Zinchenko. M., 1997.
According to A. B. Esin, psychologism is “a fairly complete, detailed and deep depiction of the feelings, thoughts, experiences of a fictional personality ( literary character) using specific means of fiction." Esin A. B. Psychologism of Russian classical literature. M., 1988.
O. N. Osmolovsky noted that Russian literature “in general was characterized by ontological psychologism<.>the final explanation of man in Russian literature and philosophy is not psychological, but ontological - taking into account the divine fundamental principle of existence.” He proposes to supplement the systematization of forms of psychological analysis and terminology proposed by L. Ya. Ginzburg and A. B. Esin, which is usually used by modern researchers of psychological art: the introduction of the concepts of ethical, dramatic and lyrical psychologism seems logical and justified.
Chapter 2. Psychologism in the works of L. N. Tolstoy
Tolstoy's psychologism is the psychologism of a developing, fundamentally incomplete person. Revealing the inner world of heroes through actions and deeds, the writer achieved the highest skill in depicting characters. Tolstoy's main characters are always people rooted: either in their own family, or in their own land, or in history.
Psychological analysis became one of the main methods of artistic study of man in Tolstoy’s work, having a huge impact on world literature. Already in one of the first works with which the Russian reader becomes acquainted in his youth - the trilogy “Childhood. Adolescence. Youth”, Nikolenka’s introspection serves as a method for the writer to reveal the psychological characteristics and emotional experiences of the young hero.
The writer’s psychological exercises do not leave a heavy impression of hopelessness and the reader constantly hopes that everything will work out if circumstances change. In fairness, it is worth noting that, according to popular belief, there are two Tolstoys: the artist before the revolution and the religious thinker and prophet after it: Gustafson R. F. Inhabitant and Stranger: Theology and artistic creativity Leo Tolstoy / Trans. from English T.Buzina. St. Petersburg, 2003. In his last years, Tolstoy in his work became closer to Dostoevsky - his “Resurrection” is filled with the same provincial tragedy, not flashy, not so large-scale, but no less interesting and real.
At the same time, the psychologism of L. N. Tolstoy in this novel is similar not only to the psychologism of M. F. Dostoevsky, but also, no less, to the psychologism of A. P. Chekhov. The complexity, uncertainty, and confusion of experiences usually characteristic of Tolstoy’s heroes are completely absent in Katyusha, and not because her inner world is poor and inexpressive. On the contrary, she, according to the author and the revolutionaries who became her comrades, is a wonderful woman who has experienced a lot. But the artist chose a different way of revealing her experience, not the “dialectics of the soul,” with its “details of feelings,” lengthy internal monologues and dialogues, dreams, memories, but, to use Tolstoy’s own expression, “mental life expressed in scenes” (vol. 88 , p. 166). Here Tolstoy's psychologism is in some significant way similar to Chekhov's manner.
At the same time, even in “Resurrection” Tolstoy remains Tolstoy and his characters, and the whole essence of the novel is completely directed, literally rests on the unjust structure of society.
P. Kropotkin believed that Tolstoy’s book “Resurrection” left marks on the conscience of many people who until then had not been at all interested in the prison issue, and made them think about the incongruity of the entire modern system of punishment. Kropotkin P. Russian literature. Ideal and reality: A course of lectures. M., 2003.
Tolstoy's psychological method is based on the idea of movement, accurately called by Chernyshevsky “dialectics of the soul.” The inner world of a person is depicted in the process as a constant, continuously changing mental flow. Tolstoy strives to depict not so much the nature of feelings and experiences as the process of the emergence of thoughts or feelings and their changes. Tolstoy writes in his diary: “How to write well piece of art, in which it would clearly express the fluidity of a person, the fact that he is one and the same, now a villain, now an angel, now a sage, now an idiot, now a strong man, now a powerless being." What are the means for depicting a person? Traditionally, a portrait plays an important role, external description.
The law of Tolstoy's world is the discrepancy between the external and the internal: the ugliness of Princess Marya hides spiritual wealth and beauty, and, on the contrary, the ancient perfection of Helen and the beauty of Anatole hide soullessness and insignificance. But much more important for Tolstoy is the depiction of the hero’s inner world, thoughts and feelings, which is why his internal monologue occupies a huge place.
The significance of the “internal” is also manifested in the fact that Tolstoy shows and evaluates external phenomena and events through the eyes of the hero, acting through his consciousness, as if depriving a person of a mediator-narrator in understanding reality. The new way of depicting the relationship between reality and man is reflected in the abundance of everyday details and details of the external environment that affect the psyche.
"The soul sounds under the countless, sometimes unnoticed, inaudible fingers of reality at this moment"- writes Tolstoy researcher A.P. Skaftymov. Natasha's joyful excitement on name day; her state during the first ball, new feelings associated with new impressions - pomp, splendor, noise; a hunting scene described with all external details, and at the same time the state of feelings of all those involved - the hunter Danila, and the old count, and the uncle, and Nikolai, and Natasha.
In the novel "War and Peace" the mental processes of the characters, their feelings and aspirations are indicated both indirectly - through gestures, facial expressions, actions, and directly - with the help of the characters' self-characteristics, in their internal ones (the reflections of Pierre, Andrey, Natalia, Marya and etc.) and external monologues. Portrait and landscape sketches serve as the key to understanding not only the inner world of the hero, but also the meaning of the entire work. So, for example, Kutuzov, on the eve of the Battle of Borodino, reading letters from madamme de Stael, is simply engaged in “the usual execution and subordination of life,” for “he alone was given to know, to understand the meaning of the event that was taking place,” for he “knew not with his mind or science, but with everyone Russian being, that the French are defeated and the enemies are fleeing.” This insignificant action characterizes Kutuzov’s worldview, which is close and understandable to the people. Helen’s “unchanging” smile, “marble shoulders and chest” emphasize her dead, empty essence. The “beautiful radiant” eyes of Princess Marya show us the depth of her spiritual world, where “the titanic work of self-improvement was carried out.” The writer shows self-doubt, the struggle between the desire for happiness and the awareness of the need for suffering in the scene when the heroine, preparing to meet Anatole, “ sat motionless in front of the mirror, looking at her face, and in the mirror she saw that there were tears in her eyes and her mouth was trembling, preparing to sob.”
The War of 1812 put everything in its place. Tolstoy’s favorite heroes merged with the people into a single whole, empty and selfish people only put on “masks of patriotism.” So, for example, Prince Vasily understood patriotism as “the ability to loudly, melodiously, between a desperate howl and a gentle murmur, pour out the words of the manifesto, completely independently from its meaning”, in Helen’s salon - to make speeches condemning Kutuzov, and at Anna Pavlovna - justifying him! The life of light is spiritually dead, and we see this when Anna Pavlovna “starts a conversation in the salon, like a spindle,” and “makes sure that the thread does not break.” Anna Mikhailovna “makes a mournful and Christian expression” on her face, “acting” with business techniques Petersburg lady,” Bilibin, talking about the losses in the battle, “collects the skin from his forehead and prepares to say the next thing.”
Tolstoy contrasts “dead” heroes with the spiritually rich, those seeking the meaning of life, who, in a moment of national misfortune, take full responsibility for their fate upon themselves. Natasha takes the wounded out of Moscow. She is close to the people, let us remember her dance when she is shown “able to understand everything that was in Anisya, and in Anisya’s father, and in her aunt, and in every Russian person!” She was able to understand “everything that was in every Russian ”, and Prince Andrey, on the eve of the Battle of Borodino, talking with Pierre. Driving through the river where the soldiers were swimming, he experiences the pain characteristic of every Russian person when, instead of “healthy bodies,” he sees “healthy cannon fodder.” The “sounds of a dog barking” that Denisov makes when he learns about Petya’s death show us the sincerity and golden heart of the old warrior. The “ecstatic joy” shining in the face of the doomed Karataev, “its mysterious meaning, which filled Pierre’s soul with joy,” foreshadows the victory of the people’s moral feeling over the selfish tyranny of Napoleon. By depicting people from the people in these difficult moments, the writer shows that the victory that cost Russia so dearly , did not happen on its own, but matured in the depths of the people’s character. “On the fortification line it was like being in a family; the hidden warmth of moral feeling was felt everywhere.”
The internal monologues of the characters in “War and Peace” are detailed and have a complex syntactic structure. They show the “fluidity” of characters, the mental process itself, because Tolstoy’s psychologism is the psychologism of a becoming, developing, fundamentally incomplete person. One feeling transforms into another under the influence of memories and associations. These are the internal monologues of Prince Andrei and Pierre, their conversation in Otradnoye: “If I see, clearly see this staircase that leads from a plant to a person... why can’t I assume that this staircase does not stop with me, but leads everything further and further, to higher beings...” “Dialectics of the soul,” the quality of people who are generous and sensitive to living life, acquires epic properties in the novel. The subtle skill of psychologism, the greatness of the conceived idea of the novel, the scope of the narrative put “War and Peace” on a par with the great masterpieces of world literature.
E. Markov repeatedly turned to the work of L. Tolstoy. Its main task is to comprehend Tolstoy’s concept of the world and man, on which, as the critic tries to show, all elements of the work depend - plot, composition, choice of characters, favorite life situations. The subject of observation is the writer’s ideas about the basic universal laws governing human existence, the writer’s assessment of what is depicted, and his philosophy of life, reflected in the figurative fabric of the works. In Markov’s critical interpretation, Tolstoy is a writer who expresses in his work a direct, joyful perception of existence. The author of the article “Turgenev and Count Tolstoy in the main motives of their work” is focused on the life-affirming pathos of the writer’s works, the basis of which he considers pantheism. Tracing how such problems as personality and people, man and history, the relationship between private and public life, duty and feeling, natural and moral are solved in Tolstoy’s works, he identifies the criteria for the author’s socio-historical and moral-ethical assessment of his heroes: “Morality Count Tolstoy - loyalty or disloyalty to nature. Moral man in his eyes he is the one who invents himself least.”
Chapter 2. Psychologism in worksA. P. Chekhova
The history of Russian literature has always relied on the work of those literary artists whose talent, having risen to the highest
achievements of his predecessors, having managed to rethink what was created earlier, brought to national culture fundamental
artistic discoveries. Among such authors, one can certainly single out Anton Pavlovich Chekhov, whose name is associated with a special kind of
mastery, manifested primarily in the writer’s ability to trace the dynamics of the human soul in its various manifestations and in all its depth, using a small genre form - a story. Before this author, literature did not know a method that would allow one to analyze the fleeting features of current existence and at the same time give a complete, epic picture of life. Chekhov managed to accomplish this for the first time.
The new form of storytelling implied, of course, a new hero, completely different from monumental images (such as Onegin, Pechorin, Bolkonsky, Karenina). Subject of interest and artistic comprehension Chekhov becomes that layer of reality that reveals to the reader everyday life, which often passes by the consciousness of most people. But, according to the writer, everyday life is what “creates personality,” since there are not so many bright, unusual events in the destinies of people. And Chekhov strives to draw the reader’s attention to individual days and hours of a “small” philistine existence, to comprehend them and
help a person live consciously.
Unlike the classical heroes of the Russian novel, painted and sculpted, Chekhov's characters are easy to “feel”, but difficult to “see.” This impression arises, in particular, because the writer refuses the traditional portrait characteristics. He confines himself to more or less vivid details, entrusting everything else to the imagination of his reader. The writer's attention can be focused on a detailed description of the hero's things: galoshes, glasses, knife, umbrella, watch, robe, cap. And only two or three portrait strokes: “small”, “crooked”, “face like a ferret” (Belikov’s image). Chekhov highlights individual details, and we ourselves conjecture and complete the image. And the author helps us with this, revealing the character of his hero in relationships with others, in skillfully constructed dialogues, with the help of an internal monologue.
There is such a pattern in Chekhov’s narrative: the richer the character’s nature, the more vividly he perceives the surrounding reality, the more direct his connections with the world, and reality itself appears in all its diversity.
In Chekhov's dramaturgy, where instead of the established development of dramatic action there is a smooth narrative flow of life, without ups and downs, without a certain way marked beginning and end. After all, as you know, Chekhov believed that a writer should take as his plot “even, smooth, ordinary life, as it really is.” It is no coincidence that even the death of heroes or an attempted death in Chekhov should not hold either the author’s or the audience’s attention, and are not essential for resolving the dramatic conflict, as happens in “The Seagull” or “Three Sisters”, where the death of Treplev and Tuzenbach goes unnoticed even by close people. So the main content of the drama is not external action, but a kind of “lyrical plot”, the movement of the souls of the heroes, not an event, but being, not the relationships of people with each other, but the relationships of people with reality, the world.
Such works in which the internal conflict is psychological in nature and is decisive in the development of events can be called psychological plays. Like any other species internal conflict, psychological functions at the plot level, that is, it acts as the motivational basis of dramatic action. An action based on an internal conflict does not imply a complete resolution of contradictions with the onset of a denouement. It may only mark the resolution of the external struggle, but the knots of internal problems are not completely untied. In this regard, V. Khalizev’s reasoning about the relationship between the nature of the conflict and the levels of its functioning is indicative. The scientist notes that internal conflict is substantial in nature, while external conflict is causal.
At the end of the 19th century, the grandiose tasks of recreating harmony in the world and in the human soul unexpectedly arose before the average person, the layman; it was he who now had to break through to eternal questions through what Maeterlinck called “the tragedy of everyday life,” when a person becomes a toy in the hands fate, but nevertheless strives to realize himself within the framework of Time and Eternity. All this led to a significant transformation of the external conflict. Now this is a confrontation between a person and an initially hostile world, external circumstances. And even if an antagonist appeared, he only embodied the hostile reality surrounding the hero. This external conflict was initially seen as insoluble, and therefore fatalistic and as close to tragic as possible. The tragedy of everyday life, revealed by the “new drama,” in contrast to ancient and Renaissance tragedy, is contained in a conscious and deep conflict between personality and objective necessity.
The intractability of the external conflict was initially predetermined in the “new drama”, predetermined by life itself; it became not so much driving force drama, as much as the background of the unfolding action, determined the tragic pathos of the work. And the true core of dramatic action becomes the internal conflict, the hero’s struggle with himself in a hostile reality. This conflict, as a rule, is also unresolved within the play due to external circumstances that fatally subjugate a person. Therefore, the hero, not finding support in the present, most often looks for moral guidelines in an invariably wonderful past or in an uncertain bright future. The unresolved internal conflict against the background of an unresolvable external one, the inability to overcome the automatism of life, the internal lack of freedom of the individual - these are all structure-forming elements “ new drama”.
S. Balukhaty noted that the drama of Chekhov’s experiences and situations “is created according to the principle of non-resolution of the mutual relationships of persons involved in it during the play,” thus, incompleteness is perceived as the idea of creativity. The unresolved and insoluble nature of the conflict leads the heroes of the “new drama” to spiritual death, to inaction, mental apathy, to a state of anticipation of death, and even death itself is not seen as a resolution of the hero’s internal contradictions, since the death of an individual person is not an event against the backdrop of eternity, to the comprehension of which a man breaks through. The dramatic conflict in the realistic-symbolic direction is realized not so much in the logic of actions characters, there are so many thoughts and experiences deeply hidden from the external gaze in the development.
A separate psychological category in Chekhov’s psychologism is the ease with which logical activity in general becomes dependent on a person’s emotional states; and also the ease with which a comparatively general assessment is fluctuated and aberrated by momentary emotions. An invisible, powerful enemy - feeling magnetically determines and confuses the course of thought of most people, already wavering and arbitrary, determined by the strength of associations.
What suffers most in this anonymous struggle is the assessment given to life or people by such a powerless, biased mind. The assessment of one and the same situation, or a person in particular, constantly fluctuates depending on one’s mood. This becomes possible, obviously, because every situation, and especially a person, has many characteristics that must be analyzed without separating them in order to satisfactorily evaluate the whole. This means that it is enough to pick out individual signs to make several incorrect assessments possible. Moreover, often, for such a one-sided assessment, a person snatches from a real “bundle” a sign that is in itself insignificant. Especially the assessment of people as always possessing a very complex set of characteristics fluctuates and may be incorrect.
Originality artistic thinking Chekhov can also be seen in the original endings of his stories. The writer does not seek to surprise or amaze the reader with a rearrangement of episodes, a spectacular, unexpected outcome of events. In the story “The Bride,” for example, according to the laws of traditional novelistic composition, the denouement had to be dramatic - the escape from the house of the heroine, who refused to marry her fiancé, and a scandal. However, no scandal occurs in the story. The plot is interesting for the author not by the movement of events, but by the movement of the heroine’s inner life.
Chekhov understands the role of plot in storytelling in his own way. One can name stories in which eventfulness is essentially absent (“Happiness”, “On the Way”, etc.). The lack of action, according to researchers, is precisely what determines the philosophical and poetic mood of these short stories. Instead of a “shock” ending, Chekhov seems to pause the movement of events, giving the reader the opportunity to reflect on life for himself.
As many researchers note, Chekhov’s psychologism is close to the Japanese worldview, in particular, his “gaps” in the description of the characters’ inner world.
The Japanese’s attraction to Chekhov’s work and his literary personality is organic. It is connected with their artistic nature, their aesthetic ideas about beauty.
November night.
I'm reading Anton Chekhov.
I'm speechless with amazement.
This is a tercet by Asahi Suehiko from his book “My Chekhov”. How is Chekhov's psychologism close to Japan?
The laconicism of Chekhov's story, its soft tones, subtle nuances, the writer's tendency to leave works unsaid, as well as attention to detail - this narrative style, not familiar to Western readers, was organic for the Japanese. Chekhov elevated brevity to a kind of aesthetic principle; he said that a writer should not get bogged down in details, but be able to sacrifice details for the sake of the whole. In his artistic style, Chekhov always remained faithful to the principle of relying on individual details, on “particulars.” From these “particulars” the reader formed an idea of internal state Chekhov's heroes, their experiences. Chekhov wrote: “In the sphere of the psyche there are also particularities. God forbid from common places. It is best to avoid describing the mental states of the heroes...” As is known, contemporary critics of Chekhov did not immediately grasp the novelty of Chekhov’s psychologism and suggested that the writer was not at all interested in the psychology of his heroes.
Something similar happened to the Japanese writer Tanizaki Junichiro. Analyzing famous novel Tanizaki "Fine Snow" (1948), American explorer Japanese literature Donald Keene noticed a gaping gap in the narrative - the lack of psychological characterization of the characters' lives. “Reading this novel,” wrote D. Keene, “we become thoughtful, discovering that in the world of Japanese feelings there is an unfilled place. The writer does not hide anything from us and even tells us what kind of toothbrushes the heroines used. However, the novel does not say anything about what Taeko felt when her lover died. And it begins to seem to us that maybe the heroine didn’t care. "Fine Snow" is a difficult novel for the European reader."
Features noted by the American researcher visual arts Tanizaki, not familiar to Europeans, in essence, is very reminiscent of the features of Chekhov's psychologism, which at one time met with misunderstanding of his contemporaries.
“Suffering,” wrote Chekhov, “must be expressed the way they are expressed in life, that is, not with feet or hands, but with tone and gaze; not with gestures, but with grace.”
Conclusion
All the richest Russian classics seem to consist of two large trends - the development of the psychologism of heroes in their relationship to the world and other people and the development of internal psychologism, aimed at analyzing one’s own inner world, one’s soul.
In the works of L. N. Tolstoy and A. P. Chekhov, the psychological portraits. And the main value of these portraits is that, combining several typical features of representatives of Russian society 19th century both Tolstoy and Chekhov were able to create vivid, memorable, but at the same time atypical images, which, nevertheless, were written deeply realistically. Pierre Bezukhov, Natasha Rostova, three sisters, “a man in a case” - the most magnificent and unforgettable images. But at the same time, it is not difficult to notice a significant difference in their development.
If Tolstoy analyzes the psychological portraits of his characters as internal projections of the events happening to them, then Chekhov, on the contrary, derives the entire logic of actions from the psychological state of his heroes. Both are right. Thanks to these two geniuses, we can look at the 19th century from two sides, and this, undoubtedly, gives us the opportunity to gain completeness of perception.
Chekhov's heroes are often much less likable than Tolstoy's. These are “little people” in whom there is nothing great, but a lot of tragedy.
Tolstoy's tragedy is different. Tolstoy, of course, a great psychologist, focuses on the spiritual formation of the hero, on his development. The key moments of Tolstoy’s psychologism are the “star moments” of the heroes, the moments in which some higher truth is revealed to them. Tolstoy's psychological method is based on the idea of movement, accurately called by Chernyshevsky “dialectics of the soul.” The inner world of a person is depicted in the process as a constant, continuously changing mental flow.
List of used literature
Esin A. B. Russian literature and literary studies. M., 2003.
Esin A. B. Psychologism of Russian classical literature. M., 1988.
Gustafson R. F. Inhabitant and Stranger: Theology and artistic creativity of Leo Tolstoy / Trans. from English T.Buzina. St. Petersburg, 2003.
Kropotkin P. Russian literature. Ideal and reality: A course of lectures. M., 2003.
Psychological Dictionary / Ed. V. P. Zinchenko. M., 1997.
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The embodiment of the theme of relationships between men and women in the writer’s work. Love as a way of manipulating a person, as an opportunity for the happiness of heroes. The internal disorder of the hero of Chekhov's works, dependence on the circumstances of the outside world.
The originality of psychologism L.N. Tolstoy was noted by N.G. Chernyshevsky. He wrote: “The peculiarity of Count L.N. Tolstoy is that he is not limited to depicting the results of the psychological process: he is interested in the process itself... the subtle phenomena of this inner life, replacing one after another with extreme speed and inexhaustible originality...” The writer’s focus is on the “dialectics of the soul,” the processes of consistent development of feelings and thoughts. Let's see with what artistic means Tolstoy conveys the processes of the inner life of the characters in the novel War and Peace. One such artistic medium is portraiture. Descriptions of appearance in the novel are not just detailed - the characters are depicted in the entire spectrum of their mental movements, feelings and states. “There are painters who are famous for their art of capturing the reflection of a ray on quickly rolling waves, the fluttering of light on rustling leaves, its shimmer on the changing outlines of clouds: they are mostly said to be able to capture the life of nature. Count Tolstoy does something similar regarding the mysterious phenomena of mental life,” wrote Chernyshevsky. And the entire “mental life” of Tolstoy’s heroes is reflected in the description of their appearance. The writer uses the so-called dynamic portrait, dispersing the details of the hero’s appearance throughout the entire narrative. But the novel also contains static portraits, close to the creative style of Lermontov and Turgenev. However, if these writers have an unchanging, monologue portrait that is characteristic of the main characters, then Tolstoy’s “stable portrait” is characteristic of secondary and episodic characters. These are the portraits in the novel of Aunt Malvintseva, the freemason Bazdeev, the French officer with whom Pierre fights in a trench on the day of the Battle of Borodino. A stable portrait is also characteristic of heroes who are “closed” to living, authentic life, for whom living feelings are inaccessible (description of the appearance of Helen Bezukhova).
Another tendency of Tolstoy’s creative method is a decisive rejection of “all kinds of habitual beauty”, “revealing the true appearance of things”, when something beautiful and significant is hidden under the ordinary, and something ugly and base is hidden under the outwardly spectacular, brilliant. In that creative manner Tolstoy approaches the style of Dostoevsky, in whose heroes external unattractiveness often contrasts with internal beauty (the portrait of Lizaveta in the novel Crime and Punishment). In this aspect, Tolstoy describes the appearance of Marya Bolkonskaya and Helen Bezukhova. The writer often emphasizes the external unattractiveness of Princess Marya. Here is one of the first portraits of the heroine: “The mirror reflected an ugly, weak body and a thin face. The eyes are always sad, now they looked at themselves in the mirror especially hopelessly.” However, the heroine is distinguished by her spiritual beauty. Marya Bolkonskaya is kind and merciful, open and natural. Her inner world is unusually rich and sublime. All these qualities are reflected in the princess’s eyes, which “large, deep and radiant (as if rays of warm light sometimes came out of them in sheaves), were so good that very often, despite the ugliness of the whole face, these eyes became more attractive than beauty.” Princess Marya dreams of a family, and the arrival of father and son Kuragin involuntarily gives rise to hopes for love and happiness. The heroine’s confusion, her excitement, a sense of shame, awkwardness in front of the Frenchwoman and Lisa, who quite sincerely “cared about making her beautiful” - all these feelings were reflected on her face. “She flushed, her beautiful eyes went out, her face became covered with spots, and with that ugly expression of victim that most often settled on her face, she surrendered to the power of mll Bourienne and Lisa. Both women cared quite sincerely about making her beautiful. She was so bad that not one of them could think of competing with her...” Princess Marya appears completely different during her meeting with Nikolai Rostov. Here the heroine is natural, she does not care about the impression she makes. She is still upset by her father’s death, disappointed and discouraged by the behavior of Bogucharov’s men, who did not accept her “help” and did not let her out of the estate. Recognizing in Rostov a Russian person in her circle, someone who can understand and help, she looks at him with a deep, radiant gaze and speaks in a voice trembling with excitement. The heroine’s appearance here is given in the perception of Nikolai Rostov, who sees “something romantic” in this meeting. “A defenseless, grief-stricken girl, alone, left at the mercy of rude, rebellious men! And some strange fate pushed me here!..And what meekness, nobility in her features and expression!” he thinks, looking at Princess Marya. But Princess Marya does not remain indifferent to him. The appearance of Nikolai awakens in her soul love, timid hope for happiness, “a new force of life.” And all the heroine’s feelings are reflected in her appearance, giving her eyes sparkle, her face tenderness and light, her movements grace and dignity, her voice “new, feminine chest sounds.” This is how Tolstoy describes Princess Marya during a meeting with Nikolai in Voronezh: “Her face, from the time Rostov entered, suddenly transformed. How suddenly, with unexpected, striking beauty, that complex, skillful artistic work appears on the walls of the painted and carved lantern, which previously seemed rough, dark and meaningless, when the light is lit inside: so suddenly the face of Princess Marya was transformed. For the first time, all that pure spiritual inner work with which she had lived until now came out. All her inner work, dissatisfied with herself, her suffering, striving for good, humility, love, self-sacrifice - all this now shone in those radiant eyes, in her thin smile, in every feature of her tender face.” The type of “soulless, ugly” beauty is embodied in the novel in the image of Helen Bezukhova. In this heroine, Tolstoy defiantly emphasizes her bright, dazzling appearance. “Princess Helen smiled; she stood up with the same unchanging smile, completely beautiful woman, with which she entered the living room. Slightly rustling with her white ball gown, decorated with ivy and moss, and shining with the whiteness of her shoulders, the gloss of her hair and diamonds, she walked between the parting men, not looking at anyone, but smiling at everyone and, as if kindly granting everyone the right to admire the beauty of her figure, full shoulders... Helen was so beautiful that not only was there not a shadow of coquetry visible in her, but, on the contrary, she seemed ashamed of her undoubted and too powerfully and victoriously effective beauty.” We never see Helene as unattractive, as we sometimes see Natasha or Princess Marya. However, this very manner of portraying the heroine embodies the author’s attitude towards her. Tolstoy, who subtly notices the slightest changes in the mental life of his characters, is demonstratively monotonous in his portrayal of Helen. Nowhere do we find descriptions of the heroine’s eyes, her smiles, or facial expressions. Helen's beauty is grossly physical, palpably material, her beautiful figure, full shoulders– everything seems to merge with the clothes. This “demonstrative sculpturality” of Helen emphasizes the “lifelessness” of the heroine, the complete absence in her soul of any human feelings and emotions. Moreover, these are not just the “brilliant manners” of a secular woman who skillfully controls herself - this is internal emptiness and meaninglessness. The feeling of pity, shame or remorse is unfamiliar to her; she is devoid of any reflection. Hence the stability, the static nature of her portrait.
And vice versa, the writer reveals to us the emotionality of Natasha Rostova, her liveliness, all the diversity of her emotional movements in the descriptions of her animated eyes, her different smiles. Natasha has a “childish” smile, a smile of “joy and calmness,” a smile that “brightened due to ready tears.” Her facial expression conveys a wide variety of feelings. The dynamism of Natasha's portraits in the novel is also due to the fact that Tolstoy depicts how she grows up, turning from a child to a girl, and then to a young woman. Natasha Rostova first appears before us as a young girl, lively and restless. “A dark-eyed, big-mouthed, ugly, but lively girl, with her childish open shoulders that had popped out of her bodice from a fast run, with her black curls tumbling back, thin bare arms and small legs in lace pantaloons and open shoes, was in that cute the age when a girl is no longer a child, and a child is not yet a girl.” Natasha is touchingly innocent at the first “adult” ball in her life. In her gaze there is “readiness for the greatest joy and the greatest sorrow,” “despair” and “delight,” fear and happiness. “I’ve been waiting for you for a long time,” this frightened and happy girl seemed to say with her smile, shining because of ready tears... Her bare neck and arms were thin and ugly in comparison with Helen’s shoulders. Her shoulders were thin, her breasts were vague, her arms were thin; but Helen already seemed to have varnish from all the thousands of glances sliding over her body, and Natasha seemed like a girl who had been exposed for the first time and who would have been very ashamed of it if she had not been assured that it was so necessary.” Uncertainty and joy, excitement, self-pride and a nascent feeling of love are the main feelings of the heroine, subtly noticed by Tolstoy in her portrait. The description of appearance here is accompanied by the author's commentary, an almost open indication of Natasha's feelings. We do not find this kind of commentary in portraits created by Pushkin, Gogol or Turgenev. Tolstoy not only records the hero’s appearance in dynamics, but also reveals what caused certain changes, reveals feelings and emotions. To more deeply reveal the inner world of the hero, Tolstoy often uses some repeating detail of appearance. Such a detail is the deep, radiant eyes of Princess Marya, the “marble” shoulders of Helen, the scar on Kutuzov’s temple, the white hands of Speransky, the “jumping” cheeks of Prince Vasily. All these parts perform a characteristic function. We find this kind of repeating details that create the leitmotif of the portrait in Turgenev’s novels (Pavel Petrovich’s fragrant mustache in the novel “Fathers and Sons”). A special place in Tolstoy’s description of appearance is occupied by the image of the characters’ eyes. By recording the expression in the eyes of his characters and the characteristic features of their gaze, the writer reveals the complex internal processes of their mental life and conveys the mood of a person. Thus, the “quick” and “stern” eyes of the old man Bolkonsky emphasize the insight, skepticism of this man, his energy, efficiency, contempt for everything ostentatious and false. Dolokhov’s “beautiful insolent eyes” convey the contradictory nature of his nature: a combination in his character of nobility and arrogance, swagger. This is how Tolstoy describes the look of the dying Liza Bolkonskaya when Prince Andrei returned from the war. “Brilliant eyes, looking childishly scared and excited, stopped at him without changing expression. “I love you all, I haven’t done harm to anyone, why am I suffering? help me,” said her expression...” “She looked at him questioningly, childishly and reproachfully. “I expected help from you, and nothing, nothing, and you too!” - said her eyes. Sometimes a writer compares his characters to animals. From this perspective, Tolstoy describes the appearance of Liza Bolkonskaya. After a quarrel with her husband, “the angry, squirrel-like expression of the princess’s beautiful face was replaced by an attractive and compassion-arousing expression of fear; She looked from under her beautiful eyes at her husband, and on her face appeared that timid and acknowledging expression that appears on a dog, quickly but weakly waving its lowered tail.” Prince Andrei suppresses his wife, sometimes he is unceremonious with her - Liza often takes his behavior for granted and does not try to resist. By comparing her to a dog, the author emphasizes the heroine’s humility, “peacefulness,” and a certain complacency. In general, by comparing the manners and behavior of the characters with the habits of animals, Tolstoy achieves a magnificent artistic effect. Thus, the massive, fat and awkward Pierre is called a bear in the novel for his enormous physical strength, awkward movements, and “inability to enter the salon.” Tolstoy compares Sonya, with her extraordinary smoothness of movements, grace and “somewhat cunning and restrained manner,” to a beautiful, but not yet formed kitten, “who will be a lovely little cat.” And at the end of the novel, Sonya’s “cat habits” really showed up. Tolstoy emphasizes “virtue” in the heroine, bordering on spiritual coldness; she lacks passion, ardor, selfishness, which, according to the author, is necessary, the will to live. Therefore, Sonya is a “barren flower.” Living in Nikolai’s family, she valued “not so much the people as the whole family. She, like a cat, has taken root not with people, but with the house.” Thus, the “dialectics of the soul,” so deeply explored by the writer in the novel, is fully revealed in the description of their faces, smiles, eyes, gestures, movements, and gait. Another artistic medium that allows you to convey state of mind hero, becomes Tolstoy's landscape. Pictures of nature in the novel reveal the thoughts and feelings of the characters and emphasize their character traits. Thus, researchers have repeatedly noted the significance of the image of the “blue, endless sky” in revealing the inner appearance of Andrei Bolkonsky. This image accompanies the hero throughout his entire life, metaphorically conveying some of his character traits: coldness, rationality, striving for a heavenly ideal. Landscapes in the novel frame certain stages of the characters’ lives, merge with their mental crises or symbolize the acquisition of inner harmony. In this regard, the landscape that opened up to the wounded Prince Andrei on the field of Austerlitz is important. This is still the same picture of the endless, distant sky, indifferent to human destinies, worries, and aspirations. “There was nothing above him anymore except the sky - a high sky, not clear, but still immeasurably high, with gray clouds quietly creeping across it. “How quiet, calm and solemn, not at all like how I was running,” thought Prince Andrei... How come I haven’t seen this high sky before? And how happy I am that I finally recognized him. Yes! everything is empty, everything is deception, except this endless sky...” The hero experiences a mental crisis here, disappointment in his ambitious thoughts. Tolstoy again correlates the feeling of spiritual renewal, “return to life” in Prince Andrei with a natural image - a mighty, old oak tree. So, on the way to the Ryazan estates, the hero drives through the forest and sees an old huge oak tree, with broken branches, looking “like some old, angry and contemptuous freak.” “Spring, and love, and happiness! - it was as if this oak tree was speaking. - And how can you not get tired of the same stupid, senseless deception? Everything is the same, and everything is a lie! There is no spring, no sun, no happiness. Look there - the crushed dead spruce trees are sitting, always the same, and there I am, spreading out my broken, skinned fingers, wherever they grew - from the back, from the sides. As I grew up, I still stand, and I don’t believe your hopes and deceptions.” The hero’s mood here fully corresponds to the pictures of nature. But in Otradnoye Bolkonsky meets Natasha, involuntarily hears her conversation with Sonya, and in his soul, unexpectedly for himself, a “confusion of young thoughts and hopes” arises. And on the way back he no longer recognizes the old oak tree. “The old oak tree, completely transformed, spread out like a tent of lush, dark greenery, was melting, slightly swaying in the rays of the evening sun. No gnarled fingers, no sores, no old grief and mistrust - nothing was visible. Juicy, young leaves broke through the hundred-year-old hard bark without knots, so it was impossible to believe that this old man had produced them. “Yes, this is the same oak tree,” thought Prince Andrei, and suddenly an unreasonable spring feeling of joy and renewal came over him.” Another important means of conveying the “dialectics of the soul” in the novel is the internal monologue. V.V. Stasov wrote that “in the “conversations” of the characters there is nothing more difficult than “monologues.” Here the authors falsify and invent more than in all their other writings... Almost no one anywhere has the real truth here, it is accidental, incorrect, fragmentary, incomplete and all kinds of leaps. Almost all authors (including Turgenev, and Dostoevsky, and Gogol, and Pushkin, and Griboyedov) write monologues that are completely correct, consistent, drawn out like a thread, polished and archilogical... Do we really think that way to ourselves? Not at all like that. I have found only one exception so far: this is Count Tolstoy. He is the only one who gives real monologues in novels and dramas, precisely with their irregularities, accidents, reticences and jumps.” Let us remember the episode where Rostov loses a large sum of money to Dolokhov. The latter, who saw his happy rival in Nikolai, wants to take revenge on him at all costs, and at the same time acquire the opportunity to blackmail him. Not being particularly decent, Dolokhov drags Nikolai into a card game, during which he loses a huge amount of money. Remembering the plight of his family, Rostov himself does not seem to understand how all this could happen, and does not fully believe in what is happening. He is angry with himself, upset, cannot understand Dolokhov. All this confusion of the hero’s feelings and thoughts is masterfully conveyed by Tolstoy in his internal monologue. “Six hundred rubles, ace, corner, nine...it’s impossible to win back!.. And how fun it would be at home...Jack, but no...this can’t be!..And why is he doing this to me?..” - he thought and remembered Rostov". “After all, he knows,” he said to himself, “what this loss means for me. He can't want my death, can he? After all, he was my friend. After all, I loved him... But it’s not his fault either; What should he do when he is lucky?..” Elsewhere, Princess Marya guesses about the true reasons for Nikolai Rostov’s coldness towards her. “So that’s why! That's why! - said the inner voice in the soul of Princess Marya. -...Yes, he is now poor, and I am rich...Yes, only because of this...Yes, if only this had not happened....” Tolstoy's inner speech often seems abrupt, his phrases syntactically incomplete. As Chernyshevsky noted, “Count Tolstoy’s attention is most of all drawn to how some feelings and thoughts develop from others; it is interesting for him to observe how a feeling that directly arose from a given position or impression ... passes into other feelings, again returns to the previous starting point and wanders again and again.” We observe the change of these mental movements, their alternation in the internal monologue of Andrei Bolkonsky before the Battle of Borodino. It seems to Prince Andrei that “tomorrow’s battle is the most terrible of all in which he participated, and the possibility of death for the first time in his life, without any relation to everyday life, without consideration of how it will affect others, but only in relation to to himself, to his soul, with vividness, almost with certainty, simply and horribly” appears to him. His whole life seems to him a failure, his interests petty and base. “Yes, yes, these are the false images that excited and delighted and tormented me,” he said to himself, turning over in his imagination the main pictures of his magic lantern of life... “Glory, the public good, love for a woman, the fatherland itself - how great they seemed to me.” These pictures, what a deep meaning they seemed to be filled with! And all this is so simple, pale and rough in the cold light of that morning which I feel rising for me.” Prince Andrei seems to convince himself that his life and the lives of his loved ones are not so good as to be pitied. Bolkonsky's gloomy mood intensifies as he remembers more and more of the past. He remembers Natasha and feels sad. “I understood her,” thought Prince Andrei. “I not only understood, but this spiritual strength, this sincerity, this spiritual openness, this soul, I loved in her... so much, so happily I loved...” Then Bolkonsky thinks about Anatole, his rival, and his melancholy turns into despair, the feeling of the misfortune that has happened to him takes possession of his soul with renewed vigor. “He didn’t need any of this. He didn't see or understand any of this. He saw in her a pretty and fresh girl, with whom he did not deign to connect his fate. And I? And is he still alive and cheerful?” Death seems to the hero as a deliverance from all the misfortunes of his life. But, finding himself close to death, on the Borodino field, when “a grenade, like a top, smoking, spun between him and the lying adjutant,” Bolkonsky suddenly felt a passionate impulse of love for life. “Is this really death,” thought Prince Andrei, looking with a completely new, envious gaze at the grass, at the wormwood and at the stream of smoke curling from the spinning black ball, “I can’t, I don’t want to die, I love life, this grass, earth, air ..." As S.G. notes Bocharov, these natural images of the earth (grass, wormwood, a trickle of smoke), symbolizing life, are in many ways opposite to the image of the sky, symbolizing eternity in the novel “War and Peace” by L.N. Tolstoy. – In the book: Three masterpieces of Russian classics. M., 1971, p. 78.”>. However, Prince Andrei in the novel is associated precisely with the image of heaven, so in this impulse to life there is a certain inconsistency; we can assume the future death of the hero. A writer's internal monologue often acts as one of the means of characterizing a character. Tolstoy reveals the selfishness, irritability, despotism of the old Prince Bolkonsky and at the same time his intelligence, insight, and ability to understand people not only in his actions, but also in the hero’s internal monologues. Thus, Nikolai Andreevich quickly recognizes the true nature of Anatoly Kuragin, who came with his father to woo Princess Marya. Old Prince Bolkonsky is attached to his daughter in his own way and at the same time is selfish like an old man. He is sorry to part with Princess Marya, and besides, he clearly understands that young Kuragin is stupid, immoral and cynical. Nikolai Andreevich notices Anatole’s interest in the French woman, notices the confusion and excitement of his daughter, who has the hope of starting her own family. All this irritates old Bolkonsky to the extreme. “What do I need Prince Vasily and his son? Prince Vasily is a chatterbox, empty-headed, and he must be a good son...” he grumbled to himself. Life without Princess Marya seems unthinkable to the old prince. “And why should she get married? - he thought. - Probably to be unhappy. There's Lisa behind Andrey ( better than my husband now it seems difficult to find), but is she happy with her fate? And who will take her out of love? Dull, awkward. They'll take you for your connections, for your wealth. And don’t they live in girls? Even happier! Anatole's attention to mlle Bourienne, which offends all the feelings of Nikolai Andreevich, the innocence of his daughter, who does not notice this attention, the turmoil created in the house due to the arrival of the Kuragins by Liza and the French woman - all this drives him literally into rage. “The first person he met showed up - and the father and everything was forgotten, and he was running, itching upward, and wagging his tail, and he didn’t look like himself! Glad to leave my father! And I knew that I would notice... Fr... fr... fr... And don’t I see that this fool is looking only at Burienka (we need to drive her away)! And how there is no pride enough to understand this! Although not for myself, if there is no pride, then for me, at least. We need to show her that this idiot doesn’t even think about her, but only looks at Bourienne. She has no pride, but I will show her this...” In the same scene of the Kuragins' matchmaking, all the baseness of Anatole's thoughts, the cynicism and immorality of his depraved nature are revealed. “Why not marry, if she is very rich? It never interferes,” thought Anatole. Having seen Mlle Bourienne, he decided that “here, in the Bald Mountains, it will not be boring.” “Very pretty! - he thought, looking at her. “This companion is very nice.” I hope she will take it with her when she marries me,” he thought, “very, very pretty.” Thus, the writer’s inner speech is “incorrect,” mobile, and dynamic. “By recreating the movement of thoughts and feelings of his heroes, Tolstoy reveals what is happening in the depths of their souls and which the heroes themselves are either unaware of or only vaguely guess. What happens in the depths of the soul, from Tolstoy’s point of view, is often more true than conscious feelings…” writes M.B. Khrapchenko. Using the technique of internal monologue, the writer reproduces the characteristics of the characters and their inner world.
In Tolstoy's psychological analysis, the author's commentary on the character's thoughts, words, or any events is also very important. Let us recall, for example, the scene of Bagration’s detour of troops before the Battle of Shengraben. “Whose company? – Prince Bagration asked the fireworksman standing by the boxes. He asked: whose company? But in essence he asked: aren’t you shy here? And the fireworksman understood this. “Captain Tushin, your Excellency,” the red-haired fireworksman with a face covered with freckles shouted, stretching out in a cheerful voice.” And then Tolstoy allows his hero, Andrei Bolkonsky, to evaluate these events. “Thanks to the tact that Prince Bagration showed, Prince Andrei noticed that, despite this randomness of events and their independence from the will of their superior, his presence did an enormous amount. The commanders, who approached Prince Bagration with upset faces, became calm, the soldiers and officers cheerfully greeted him and became more animated in his presence and, apparently, flaunted their courage in front of him.” Another important artistic technique of L.N. Tolstoy the psychologist is the so-called “defamiliarization” (V. Shklovsky). It is based on a description of an object, phenomenon, process as completely unfamiliar, a departure from all stereotypes, habitual associations, the effect of a new, fresh look. The writer repeatedly uses this technique in the novel, characterizing the characters in a certain way, conveying their intellectual level, thoughts, and mood. A well-known example of “defamiliarization” in Tolstoy’s novel is Natasha Rostova’s perception of the opera. “On the stage there were even boards in the middle, on the sides there were painted cardboards depicting trees, and behind there was a canvas stretched on boards. In the middle of the stage sat girls in red bodices and white skirts. One, very fat, in a white silk dress, sat separately, on a low bench, to which green cardboard was glued to the back. They were all singing something. When they finished their song, the girl in white walked up to the prompter's booth, and a man in tight-fitting silk trousers on thick legs, with a feather and a dagger, approached her and began to sing and spread his arms. The man in tight trousers sang alone, then she sang. Then both fell silent, the music began to play, and the man began to finger the hand of the girl in a white dress, apparently again waiting for the beat to begin his part with her. They sang together, and everyone in the theater began to clap and shout, and the man and woman on stage began to bow.” This scene shows us that social life, with its falsehood, lies, and conventions, is initially alien to Natasha. She finds it strange what she sees on stage. Tolstoy portrays opera as a symbol of the thoroughly false secular society. It is characteristic that it is here that Natasha meets Helen and unwittingly succumbs to her harmful influence.
Thus, L.N. Tolstoy in the novel “War and Peace” appears before us as a brilliant psychologist who reveals the depths of the human soul and the facets of characters.
Lesson 1,2: Art world L. N. Tolstoy.
Lesson objectives:
help students find their way to the creativity and personality of L. Tolstoy, understand his religious and aesthetic views, try to penetrate his spiritual and artistic world
Equipment:
- Portraits of the writer by Kramskoy, Repin, Perov, Nesterov, Shmarinov;
- Photos of recent years;
- Video film “Repin draws Tolstoy” (9 minutes), - M., studio “Kvart”;
Audio recording “The Diary of L. N. Tolstoy” (4 minutes), - M., studio “Kvart”;
Preliminary task for the lesson.
Individually:
- a story about Tolstoy's ancestors;
- miniature essay for specially prepared students “L. Tolstoy through the eyes of artists”, “My impressions when seeing portraits of the writer”;
- a story about the writer’s habits, gestures, speech, etc.
- (“Strokes to the portrait” based on the book “L.N. Tolstoy in the memoirs of his contemporaries”, M., Prosveshchenie, 1974);
- favorite poems of L. Tolstoy: “Memories” by A. S. Pushkin, “Silence” by F. I. Tyutchev, “A. L. B-koy" A. A. Fet;
Leo Tolstoy and music (favorite musical works performed by students, comments on them).
Progress of the lesson.
1. Word of the teacher “The World of Leo Tolstoy”. Our lesson, naturally, cannot cover the vastness of the writer’s world. But maybe he will help you determine the path to your Tolstoy. Our lesson is not a biography of a writer or an essay on creativity; we will not trace in detail all life path
writer. Most likely, the purpose of the lesson is to show the writer from a side less familiar to us, to look at him as a person, as a personality.
Origins play an important role. It all starts with the family, with the “family nest”, with the ancestors. And Leo Tolstoy’s ancestors are truly legendary.
2. Ancestors of L. Tolstoy. Student's story
Leo Tolstoy was born on August 28 (September 9), 1928 in the Yasnaya Polyana estate, Krapivensky district, Tula province, into an aristocratic noble family.
On the day of the coronation of Catherine I, he received the title of count, since, together with Menshchikov, he energetically contributed to her accession. But under Peter II, the son of Tsarevich Alexei, P. A. Tolstoy fell into disgrace and at the age of 82 was exiled to the Solovetsky Monastery, where he soon died.
Only in 1760, under Empress Elizaveta Petrovna, the descendants of P. A. Tolstoy were returned to the count's dignity.
The writer's grandfather, Ilya Andreevich, was a cheerful, trusting, careless man. He squandered all his fortune and was forced to serve as governor in Kazan.
The patronage of the all-powerful Minister of War Nikolai Ivanovich Gorchakov, whose daughter he was married to, helped. In the family of I. A. Tolstoy lived a pupil, a distant relative of his wife Pelageya Nikolaevna Gorchakova, Tatyana Aleksandrovna Ergolskaya. She was secretly in love with his son Nikolai Ilyich.
Nikolai Ilyich, the writer’s father, at the age of 17 decided to serve in the military as an adjutant to Prince Andrei Ivanovich Gorchakov, participated in the glorious military campaigns of 1813-1814, was captured by the French and was liberated in 1815 by our troops who entered Paris. He retired and came to Kazan. But his father's death left him poor. Then at the family council a decision was made: to marry the rich and noble princess Maria Nikolaevna Volkonskaya. So the Tolstoys moved to live in Yasnaya Polyana, the estate of Princess Volkonskaya.
The Volkonskys descended from Rurik and considered their ancestor Prince Mikhail of Chernigov, who was brutally tortured by the Tatars in 1246 for his proud refusal to observe Basurman customs and canonized. A descendant of Prince Mikhail, Prince Ivan Yuryevich, in the 13th century received the Volkonsky inheritance along the Volkon River, which flowed in the Kaluga and Tula provinces. The surname came from him. His son, Fyodor Ivanovich, died heroically on the Kulikovo field in 1380.
My maternal great-grandfather, Sergei Fedorovich Volkonsky, is surrounded by legend. As a major general, he participated in the Seven Years' War. A yearning wife had a dream where a voice commanded her to send her husband a body icon. The icon was immediately delivered through Field Marshal Apraksin. And so, in the battle, a bullet hits Sergei Fedorovich in the chest, but the icon saves his life. Since then, the icon, like a sacred relic, was kept by L. Tolstoy’s grandfather, Nikolai Sergeevich.
Nikolai Sergeevich Volkonsky, the writer’s grandfather, was a statesman close to Empress Catherine II. But, having encountered her favorite Potemkin, the proud prince paid with his court career and was exiled by the governor to Arkhangelsk. After retiring, he married Ekaterina Dmitrievna Trubetskoy and settled in Yasnaya Polyana. Ekaterina Dmitrievna died early, leaving her only daughter Maria. The peasants respected the reasonable master, who cared about their well-being. He built a rich manor house on the estate, laid out a park, and dug a large pond. In 1821 he died.
In 1822, the orphaned Yasnaya Polyana came to life, and a new owner, Nikolai Ilyich Tolstoy, settled in it. His family life was happy at first. The children went: Nikolai, Sergei, Dmitry, Lev and, finally, the long-awaited daughter - Maria. However, her birth turned into inconsolable grief for N.I. Tolstoy: Maria Nikolaevna died during childbirth, and the Tolstoy family became orphans.
The mother was replaced by Tatyana Aleksandrovna Ergolskaya, who still loved her father, but did not marry him. His father died in 1837, when Levushka was 9 years old. So the family was completely orphaned.
Adding a teacher.
As a child, Tolstoy was surrounded by a warm family atmosphere. Family feelings were valued here. Here they were sympathetic to the poor and provided them with money. Even as a boy, L. Tolstoy looked closely at believers, wanderers and pilgrims. This is how the “folk thought” matured in the soul of the future writer: “All the people who surrounded my childhood - from my father to the coachmen - seem to me to be exceptionally good people,” said L. Tolstoy, “probably my pure, loving feeling, like a bright ray, revealed to me people have their best qualities, and the fact that all these people seemed to me to be exceptionally good was much closer to the truth than when I saw only their shortcomings.”
As a student at Kazan University, Leo Tolstoy became interested in the idea of the moral revival of humanity. He himself begins to analyze the negative sides of his character with utmost sincerity and directness. The young man does not spare himself; he pursues not only his shameful actions, but also thoughts unworthy of a highly moral person. Thus begins the unprecedented labor of the soul, which Tolstoy will engage in throughout his life. An example of this spiritual work is the writer’s diaries, which amounted to 13 volumes of his creative heritage. A thick fog of evil tongues and delight enveloped this man during his lifetime. It is unlikely that there were people who had not heard of him at all, but even if there were, their lives still became in many ways different since this phenomenon - Leo Tolstoy - appeared on earth.
Because after these works people began to look at themselves differently. He did not write stories and novels that could be read or not read, he rebuilt the world, but first he had to rebuild himself.
There is one book in Tolstoy’s huge literary heritage, which occupies 90 volumes of the anniversary edition of his works, whose fame is not nearly as great as the fame of “War and Peace” or “Anna Karenina.” Meanwhile, the book deserves our grateful attention. This is the book of the life of a great writer. You won’t read it in a row, like a novel or story. But its significance is enormous, its meaning is high.
Working with the audio recording “The Diary of L. N. Tolstoy.”
When listening to the recording, draw a conclusion about the views of L. N. Tolstoy
Continuation of the teacher.
But the search for oneself, one’s own “I” continues: St. Petersburg University; successfully passing exams, but gives up what he started; service in the office of the Tula provincial government - but this too was abandoned. “Throwings of the soul” lead him to the Caucasus. He becomes a participant in the Crimean War - (the voice of his ancestors made itself felt). Impressions from the war will form the basis of “Sevastopol Stories” and “War and Peace.”
Returning from the war, he marries Sofya Andreevna Bers, and again searches for the meaning of life: the desire to be a good owner, and at the same time he also writes. He is already a fairly famous writer, the author of war stories, “War and Peace”, he is happy with his family. But as a writer, he constantly feels that something is wrong, that is, the search for truth, the meaning of life continues. This is how he was depicted in the paintings of Russian artists who came to Yasnaya Polyana more than once.
3. “Tolstoy through the eyes of artists...” (My observations) The essay is a miniature of a prepared student. (For example, based on the portrait of L.N. Tolstoy by the artist Kramskoy).
Of the picturesque portraits, the best must be recognized as the portrait by Kramskoy, painted in 1874, when Lev Nikolaevich was 45 years old.
This portrait perfectly depicts the eyes, since first of all the writer believed that the eyes are the “mirror of the soul.” In the intense, calm, concentrated gaze one can feel a poetic broad nature, enormous intellect, strong temperament, big heart, unyielding will, utmost simplicity, goodwill towards people, nobility.
His face, in its features, seems at first glance quite ordinary, simple, very Russian. This is not the face of an aristocrat. But in the person of Lev Nikolaevich one can still feel a strong breed, the vitality of a certain kind of people. The face seems to be carved, sculpted from some very elastic material. Facial features are large, rough, sharp. A huge convex forehead, clearly visible because the hair is combed back, compressed at the temples, as if the whole brain was pushed into the front part of it. Along the entire forehead there are two horizontal large deep wrinkles. On the bridge of the nose there are two vertical, even deeper, but short wrinkles.
The forehead is pulled tightly over the eyes, as happens when they frown or when thinking intensely. The eyebrows are huge, bristly, shaggy, strongly protruding. Sorcerers, fairy-tale grandfathers, heroes, and sages should have such eyebrows. There is something dense and powerful about them. Eyebrows hang just above the eyes.
The bones on the cheekbones have protruded greatly. The cheeks were slightly sunken. This gives the face the appearance of a person who has worked hard and hard all his life.
His nose is very wide. This brings him closest to the ancient elders. There is nothing lordly or sophisticated about the shape of the nose. You can just imagine how he inhales with this typically Russian nose the smell of forests and free Russian fields dear to him. The nostrils are thin, sometimes flared, like those of horses of pure high blood.
Deep oblique folds run from the nose to the corners of the lips on each side of the nose. And on each cheek there is also one small fold. It was as if the sculptor had moved a chisel here and there to sharpen his facial features. This gives the face an expression of energy and courage.
The lips are mostly not visible; they are overgrown with fluffy mustaches. There is nothing beautiful about the outline of lips. But when you look at this face, it seems that he could not have any other mouth. The mouth is also simple: large, convex, but at the same time one can feel a soft and kind strength in it.
His large beard increases the size of his face. You look at his beard and think: “How could he exist without such a wide Russian beard, which makes him similar to millions of peasants!” But at the same time, there is something wise and eternal in this curly ancient beard.
What is impossible to say by looking only at a portrait? (About what the writer’s voice, gestures, facial expressions were like).
4. “Strokes to the portrait” Student’s message.
The memories of contemporaries about the hands of L. N. Tolstoy are interesting. They were neither large nor small, of medium size, plump, soft, not wrinkled in old age, like many, but with smooth skin and always immaculately clean. He washed them repeatedly throughout the day. The nails are not elongated, but wide, rounded, cut short, and also impeccably clean.
Some of his hand gestures were special. Putting one hand or both hands in the waistband. You put the little finger of your left hand on the paper while writing - and you felt like an aristocrat. He often read the letter, holding it not as usual in one hand, but with both. When I put my elbow on the back of the chair, my arm would often hang down, and I also felt something aristocratic.
His voice leaned towards a light bass. The timbre is pleasant, soft, one felt an extraordinary nobility, truly human dignity, however, echoes of aristocracy were also heard. As for his hearing, he completely preserved it until the end of his days and was very subtle.
Speech is rhythmic, mostly calm. His speech amazed his listeners with its colors, prominence, and harmony. At the same time, his speech was unusually simple; no pathos, no artificiality, no deliberateness was ever heard in it.
Lev Nikolaevich very often used interjections in his speech: “um”, “oh”, “ah”, “ah-yay-yay-yay”, “ba”.
Attitude to food. Even in his youth, Lev Nikolaevich accustomed himself to simple and moderate food. On December 9, 1850, he writes in a letter to T. A. Ergolskaya: “I have lunch at home, eat cabbage soup and porridge and am quite satisfied.” At the age of 25, he set himself a rule: “Be abstinent in food and drink.” At the age of 27, he noted in his notebook: “I have never been unwell because I did not eat enough, but always because I overate” (October, 1855).
The idea of the dangers of excessive consumption of food by people of the privileged class occupied L. N. Tolstoy even 8 years later, during his work on Anna Karenina, when he was already 45 years old. Over the years, L.N. Tolstoy became more and more convinced that it was unacceptable to “make pleasure” out of food.
For the last 25 years of his life, the writer did not eat meat or fish. Constantly controlled and pulled himself together. One of his regular dishes was oatmeal.
5. Watching the video “Repin Draws Tolstoy” will complement students’ understanding of the writer’s life in Yasnaya Polyana.
Adding a teacher.
The large house had an outbuilding. Upstairs there were 5 rooms with a dark closet, and below there was one room with stone vaults, a former storage room and next to it a small room from where a twisted wooden staircase led up. Upstairs there were bedrooms, a children's room, a dining room with a large window and a living room with a small balcony where they drank coffee after dinner. Downstairs, a room with vaults recently served as Leo Tolstoy's office. Repin depicted it as an office.
The garden included a greenhouse for winter flowers and a greenhouse for peaches. Here is one day in the life of a great writer. The house was sleeping when Tolstoy woke up. Only the servants were on their feet. At 8 o'clock in the morning, he put a notebook in his pocket and went down the stairs. The morning walk along the linden alley or around the house was short. It ended at the old elm, which he called the elm of the poor, here the men were already waiting for him: some asked for wood, some for alms. Tolstoy listened to everyone equally and gave them money.
Tolstoy's early breakfast was short. Then he went into the study, a vaulted room with a double door. At 15.00 Tolstoy left his office and left home for 2-3 hours: on the highway, entered into conversations with wanderers, into the village, plowed, harrowed, mowed or harnessed a horse and wandered around the surrounding area Yasnaya Polyana at 15-20 versts. He returned rested. He went far into the forest, wandering along little-travelled roads, paths, and ravines.
At 6 o'clock in the evening Tolstoy was expected to have dinner. Over lunch at big hall Conversations were held on the terrace with family members and guests. L.N. Tolstoy also talked a lot. He knew how to talk to everyone about what was on their mind.
After lunch, he invited those who knew how to play a game of chess or gorodki.
After lunch, Tolstoy went into his office, where he looked through the proofs. Oh, these proofs: smudged, crossed out, written all over!
In the evening we gathered again on the terrace at the table and drank tea. If there were musicians, he asked to play.
In his younger years, Lev Nikolaevich spent his mornings on the farm: he would go around everything or sit in the beehouse. He also planted cabbage and raised Japanese pigs. He planted an apple orchard, coffee and chicory. He was also interested in planting spruce forests, which immortalized his name on the farm.
6. - As an emotional and impressionable nature, he could not remain indifferent to the poetic word. Here are Tolstoy's favorite poems.
Prepared reading of poems and comments to them by students.
The deep-rooted opinion that Tolstoy did not like poetry does not reflect the writer’s opinion on poetic works. He is very strict in his assessments, that's true. But he highly valued real, true poetry. M. Gorky recalled what Tolstoy said: “We must learn poetry from Pushkin, Tyutchev, Shenshin.” The high demands that Tolstoy made of poetry consisted mainly in the fact that in a real poem the depth of thought should be harmoniously combined with the beauty of form. The three poetic masterpieces that you will now hear were selected according to the following principle: Tyutchev’s poem “Silence” and Pushkin’s “Memory” were included by Tolstoy in the “Reading Circle”. Chertkova recalls how L. N. Tolstoy read his favorite Tyutchev poem “Silentium” (“Silence”): “He begins quietly and soulfully, simply and deeply touching, his voice trembles slightly from inner excitement, one feels that he I myself experienced what the poet is talking about”:
A poem by F.I. Tyutchev is heard.
Poem by A. A. Fet “A. L. Brzheskoy” L.N. Tolstoy appreciated so much that he wrote to the author: “If it is ever broken and covered with ruins, and only a broken piece is found, there are too many tears in it, then this piece will be put in a museum and they will use it.” study":
A poem by A. A. Fet is heard.
And Tolstoy cites Pushkin’s “Memoirs” in his declining years at the beginning of his autobiographical notes and notes: “I would subscribe to all of them, if only I could replace the word “sad” with the word “shameful” in the last line. It is known that throughout his life Tolstoy never tired of being executed and judged himself too often and too harshly.
7. - The writer was no stranger to a passion for music. The whole family was unusually musical. Almost all family members played the piano. But still, some composers were especially loved.
Prepared presentation by students.
In the history of Russian literature, you cannot find a writer on whom music had such a strong influence as on Leo Nikolaevich Tolstoy. “Music moves me to tears!” Music in his works becomes part of the plot and influences the characters. Let us remember Beethoven’s “Kreutzer Sonata” and “Pathetique” in “Childhood”.
He listens to Beethoven, Haydn, Mendelssohn, operas by Weber, Meyerbeer, Rossini, Mozart. I don’t like everything, but Lev Nikolaevich immediately singles out Haydn’s “Symphony” and Mozart’s “Don Giovanni”.
Having gone abroad for six months, Tolstoy literally reveled in music. He writes from Paris: “The French play Beethoven and, to my great surprise, like gods, and you can imagine how much I enjoy it!”
In 1876, when Tolstoy was already close to completing Anna Karenina, an important event occurred in his musical biography: in the summer, violinist Nagornov came to Yasnaya Polyana, and among the pieces he played, Leo Tolstoy heard Beethoven’s “Kreutzer Sonata” for the first time. According to the testimony of the writer’s son, Sergei, she made a particularly strong impression on Lev Nikolaevich at that time and, perhaps, already at that time thoughts and images arose in him, which were later expressed in the story. Tolstoy believed that Beethoven introduced drama into music that was unusual for it and thereby turned it off the road. But wasn’t it this drama that defeated Tolstoy every time when he cried over Beethoven’s “Appassionata” and considered it one of the composer’s best works.
Beethoven's Appassionata sounds, perhaps performed by a trained student.
He once said about Beethoven: “I don’t like him, that is, it’s not that I don’t like him, but he’s too exciting, and that’s not necessary.”
But at the same time, in terms of the strength of passion, the power of emotions, Tolstoy the artist is closer to Beethoven than to any other composer, for example, Chopin, whom, by the way, he loved more and more over the years. The dramatic feeling of Beethoven was too familiar to the writer from his own everyday work, moreover, he did not know how to listen, nor write half-heartedly; Chopin, or Mozart, or Haydn was another matter. They contained what the writer’s soul often craved: clear, positive emotions with his great musical sensitivity. The works of these geniuses brought real, incomparable bliss. One of Tolstoy's favorite composers was Chopin. “He liked almost everything he wrote,” writes Sergei Lvovich Tolstoy in his memoirs. Chopin's works were an artistic norm and model for the writer. Often listening to any piece by Chopin, Tolstoy exclaimed: “This is how you should write! Chopin is to music what Pushkin is to poetry!”
An excerpt from a work by Chopin is played.
8. The teacher's word. A turning point in views.
15 years of cloudless family life flew by in an instant. Glory already exists, material well-being is secured, the acuteness of the experience has dulled, and he realizes with horror that the end is gradually but surely creeping up. Meanwhile, “Anna Karenina,” which he “has become disgusting,” is coming to an end. I need to write something again. By nature he was a man with religious inclinations, but until now he had only searched and found nothing definite. He believed in church religion, as the majority believe in it, without going deeper, without thinking. Everyone believes so, his fathers and grandfathers believed so. He sees himself over a deep abyss. What to do? Is there really no salvation? We must find our God! For 1.5 years, Tolstoy zealously observed religious rituals, went to mass, fasted, and was touched by the words of some truly good prayers. In the summer of 1878, he made a pilgrimage to Optina Monastery to the monastery of the famous Father Ambrose. On foot, in bast shoes, with a knapsack, together with the servant Arbuzov. But the monastery and Father Ambrose himself severely disappointed him. Arriving there, they stayed in a strange house, covered in dirt and lice, dined in a pilgrim's tavern and, like all pilgrims, had to endure and submit to the barracks discipline of the monastery. But that was not the main thing. As soon as the monastery servants learned that Count Tolstoy himself was among the pilgrims, how everything changed. Such veneration, on the one hand, and rudeness, on the other, made a grave impression on him. He returned from Optina Pustyn dissatisfied. Disillusioned with the church, Tolstoy began to rush about even more. He, who idealized the family, lovingly described the lordly life in 3 novels and created his own, similar environment, suddenly began to cruelly condemn and stigmatize it; he, preparing his sons for high school and university, began to brand modern science; he, who himself went to the doctor for advice and prescribed doctors for his children and wife from Moscow, began to deny medicine; he, a passionate hunter, greyhound and game shooter, began to call hunting “chasing dogs”; He, who had been saving money for 15 years and bought up cheap Bashkir lands in Samara, began to call property a crime, and money - debauchery. And finally, he, who devoted his entire life to fine literature, began to repent of his activities and almost left it forever. The result of this turning point was the article “What is my faith?” - the doctrine of self-improvement. This hot sermon contains the program of the novel "Sunday".
9. Analysis of the content of the article “What is my faith?” Work on cards (in writing). Answer the question: “Which of the provisions of Tolstoy’s teachings do you agree with and which do you deny? Why?"
The commandments of Jesus Christ from the Sermon on the Mount formed the basis of the teachings of L. Tolstoy.
- Do not resist evil with violence.
- Do not commit adultery and maintain a clean family life.
- Do not swear or swear to anyone or anything.
- Do not take revenge on anyone and do not justify your feelings of revenge by saying that you were offended; learn to tolerate insults.
- Remember: all people are brothers. Learn to see the good in your enemies.
Excerpts from an article by L. N. Tolstoy:
“...The life I see, my earthly life, is only a small part of my entire life from both ends of it - before birth and after death - undoubtedly existing, but hidden from my present knowledge. ...the fear of death is the voice of the animal “I” of a person living a false life..., for people who have found the joy of life in spiritual love for the world, the fear of death does not exist... The spiritual being of a person is immortal and eternal, it does not die after the cessation of bodily existence. Everything I live by has come from the spiritual life of my ancestors”;
“Evil cannot be destroyed by evil, the only means of combating violence is: - abstinence from violence: only good, encountering evil, but not becoming infected by it, is capable of defeating it in active spiritual opposition to evil”;
“... I admit that a blatant fact of violence or murder can force a person to respond with violence. But this situation is a special case. Violence should not be proclaimed as a principle of life, as its law”;
“It is impossible to establish the rules of life on deviations from moral norms, it is impossible to formulate its laws”;
“True faith in God is never unreasonable, inconsistent with reliable scientific knowledge, and its basis cannot be something supernatural. The Church, while recognizing the teaching of Christ in words, in fact denies his teaching when it sanctifies social inequality, idolizes state power based on violence, and participates in the sanctification of executions and wars”;
“By the nature of their activities, which consist in violence, governments consist of people who are the farthest from holiness - impudent, rude, depraved. There is no way to seize and retain power good people, for the love of power is not combined with kindness, but with pride, cunning and cruelty... The history of two thousand years demonstrates a growing contrast between the rise in the moral level of the people and the decline in the moral essence of the state, which means that the circle from which officials are selected is becoming narrower and lower. In terms of intelligence, education, and most importantly - in terms of moral qualities - people in power not only do not constitute the cream of society, but are significantly below its average level. And no matter how much the government changes its officials, they will be selfish and corrupt... therefore, the harmonious structure of society is unattainable through political transformations or a revolutionary struggle for power... the state must be abolished. The abolition of the state will not occur through violence, but through peaceful abstinence and evasion of people, through the refusal of every member of society from all government duties and positions, from all types of political activity. Cessation of obedience to governments and withdrawal from government positions and services will cause a reduction in the urban population and a sharp increase in the proportion of working agricultural life. And agricultural life will lead to the most natural communal self-government. The world will become a federation of small rural communities. At the same time, there will be a simplification of life forms and a simplification of man, ridding him of unnecessary, artificial needs instilled by a corrupt civilization that cultivates carnal instincts in man”;
“...in the modern family and society, the sensual instinct is exorbitantly inflated and the spiritual connections between a man and a woman hang by a thread. The idea of women's emancipation is unnatural, since it destroys the great responsibilities of serving humanity, which have been divided into two spheres for centuries: the creation of life's goods and the continuation of the human race itself. Men are attached to the first, women are attached to the second. From this division from time to time, responsibilities are also divided. A woman’s main duty is to give birth and raise children”;
“The basis for raising children in a family should be the law of true life, leading to spiritual brotherhood and unity of people. Why does conscious suggestion prevail in modern education? Because society lives a false life. Education will be a complex and difficult task as long as people want to raise children without educating themselves. If they understand that they can educate others only through themselves, through their personal example, then the question of education will be abolished and only one will remain: how to live a true life yourself? Modern educators often hide their lives and the lives of adults in general from children. Meanwhile, children are morally much more insightful and receptive than adults. Truth is the first and main condition of education. But in order to show your children the whole truth of your life without shame, you need to make your life good, or at least less bad.”
· Tolstoy's psychologism - This is the psychologism of a becoming, developing, fundamentally incomplete person.
Revealing the inner world of heroes through actions and deeds, the writer achieved the highest skill in depicting characters. Tolstoy's main characters are always people rooted: either in their clan, or in their land, or in history.
Psychological analysis became one of the main methods of artistic study of man in Tolstoy’s work, having a huge impact on world literature. Already in one of the first works with which the Russian reader becomes acquainted in his youth - the trilogy “ Childhood. Adolescence. Youth" Nikolenka’s introspection serves as a method for the writer to reveal the psychological characteristics and emotional experiences of the young hero.
· Invested in a person need for happiness; therefore it is legal. (Said Tolstoy).
· Happiness is freedom from everything petty and material; it is naturalness and spontaneity in behavior that reveals the inner wealth of a person’s soul.
· “The happiness of an individual outside of society is impossible, just as the life of a plant pulled out of the ground and thrown onto barren sand is impossible.”
The main goal of L.N. Tolstoy becomes showing the development of a person as an individual during his childhood, adolescence and youth, that is, during those periods of life when a person most fully feels himself in the world, his indissolubility with it, and then when he begins to separate himself from the world and comprehend his environment. Individual stories form a trilogy, the action in them takes place according to the idea, first in the Irtenevs’ estate (“Childhood”), then the world expands significantly (“Adolescence”). In the story “Youth,” the theme of family and home sounds much more muted, giving way to the theme of Nikolenka’s relationship with the outside world. It is no coincidence that with the death of the mother in the first part the harmony of relationships in the family is destroyed, in the second the grandmother dies, taking with her enormous moral strength, and in the third the father remarries a woman whose smile is always the same. The return of former family happiness becomes completely impossible. There is a logical connection between the stories, justified primarily by the writer’s logic: the formation of a person, although divided into certain stages, is actually continuous.
· “man is a dynamic identity.” He formulates the principle of the identity of being and thinking, meaning that the basis of the world hidden for ordinary perception is nothing more than developing thinking. And a person must ascend categorical levels in his knowledge precisely because this is the course of development of objective supra-individual thinking. etc. (using any example)
Using the example of “Youth”
Leo Nikolaevich Tolstoy’s story “Youth” conveys with extraordinary sincerity, depth, awe and tenderness moral quest, awareness of one’s “I”, dreams, feelings and emotional experiences of Nikolai Irtenyev. The narration is told in the first person, which brings us even closer to the main character. There is a feeling that it is Nikolenka who opens his soul, his inner world to you, talking about the events happening in his life, about his thoughts, moods and intentions. "Youth" is written in the form of autobiographical prose. In my opinion, this is what made it easier for Tolstoy to paint a picture of the internal movements of a person. After all, Lev Nikolaevich, according to Chernyshevsky, “extremely carefully studied the types of life of the human spirit in himself.”
Nikolai is at that age when a person most fully feels his unity with the world and, at the same time, realizes his individuality. At the university, Irtenyev becomes a person of a certain social circle, and his inquisitiveness, penchant for introspection, analysis of people and events acquires an even deeper character. He feels that the aristocrats who are one step higher treat him with disrespect and arrogance, just as he treats people of lower origin. Nikolai becomes close to the raznochintsy students, although he was annoyed by them appearance, manner of communication, errors in language, but he “anticipated something good in these people, envied the cheerful camaraderie that united them, was attracted to them and wanted to get closer to them.” He comes into conflict with himself, since he is also attracted and attracted by the “sticky mores” of a secular lifestyle imposed by an aristocratic society. He begins to be burdened by the awareness of his shortcomings: “I am tormented by the pettiness of my life... I myself am petty, but still I have the strength to despise both myself and my life,” “I was a coward at first... - I’m ashamed...”, “... I chatted with everyone and without I lied for any reason...", "I noticed a lot of vanity in myself on this occasion."
I consider Nikolai capable of moral development. The very purpose of a person is moral development, which he has set as his goal, his penchant for introspection speaks of rich internal inclinations, of his desire for self-improvement, truth, goodness and justice. This is evidenced by his disappointment in his comme il faut: “So what was the height from which I looked at them... Isn’t all this nonsense? - sometimes it began to occur to me dully under the influence of a feeling of envy of the camaraderie and good-natured, young fun that I saw in front of me.
Friendship with Dmitry Nekhlyudov plays a huge role in revealing the dialectics of Nikolai Irtenev’s soul. It is through conversations with his friend that the young man begins to understand that growing up is not a simple change in time, but a slow formation of the soul. Their sincere friendship is a necessary consequence of both strict moral demands and high mental soars, “when, rising higher and higher into the realm of thought, you suddenly comprehend all the immensity of it...”.
L.N. Tolstoy, using the example of Nikolenka Irtenyev, depicts not only the influence of the environment, but also repulsion from it, overcoming the familiar, the stable. It is expressed not in the form of conflict, but in the form of the gradual formation of one’s own view of the world, a new attitude towards people. Describing thoughts and feelings in detail young man, the writer shows the capabilities of the young hero, the capabilities of a person in his confrontation with the environment, his spiritual self-determination.
Question 22. " War and Peace" L.N. Tolstoy. Spiritual searches of his favorite heroes.
The large-scale historical nature of the epic novel “War and Peace” (1863 - 1869) and “folk thought” as the ideological basis of this work suggested Tolstoy’s description different classes and many aspects of Russian life in that historical era. The documentary sources thoroughly researched by the writer led to the recreation in the book of genuine historical events and the atmosphere of life of those years. Key Feature the form of an epic novel is a complex, multi-level composition. The narrative is divided into many storylines, in which not only fictional characters act, but also real-life historical figures.
The romantic genre tendency is easily traced: Tolstoy depicts the fate of the heroes in the process of their formation and development. However, War and Peace differs from the traditional European novel in the absence of a central hero and a huge number of characters. Let us note that the genre structure of “War and Peace” was influenced by several types of novels: a historical novel, a family novel, a psychological novel, and an “educational novel.”
Epic novel - volume, a large number of heroes, historical facts, multi-level plot, the connection of the hero with history and God.
1) hero as an individual (AB, PB)
2) family (Kuragins, Bolkonskys, Rostovs)
3) history of Russia ( Patriotic War 1812)
4) philosophy, God
This is what creates the epic.
“Understanding” and “not understanding” people according to Tolstoy. Natasha Rostova – understanding => looking for the meaning of life. Pierre is an understanding person, also looking for the meaning of life, a Freemason. Kuragins are those who do not understand.
“There is the mind of the mind and the mind of the heart”- Natasha Rostova. These words contain the author's position.
· family thought
· folk thought (the greatness of the Russian people) Platon Karataev is a symbol of folk wisdom.
· spiritual thought (“dialectics of the soul” - improvement, search for the meaning of life => only among “understanding” characters)
Some of Tolstoy's favorite characters in the novel are Pierre Bezukhov and Andrei Bolkonsky. They received an excellent education and occupy a position in society. They are distinguished by the novelty of their views. All this allows us to call them representatives of the advanced noble intelligentsia early XIX century, that is, that circle, a deep and truthful description of which is given in the novel “War and Peace”. But there's another one characteristic, uniting Pierre and Prince Andrei. They clearly stand out against the faceless background the masses of nobles fall out of the overall picture social life. Intelligence and insight allow Prince Andrei to “clearly appreciate the high society, where gossip, empty chatter, petty mutual reproaches, which are given a serious tone, have replaced everything: a lively mind, a sense of truth, lofty human thoughts, true feelings.” Pierre, in contrast to Prince Andrei, is devoid of merciless criticism: he resembles a big child with his awkwardness and enthusiasm. But Pierre, due to his unique natural wisdom, senses the falsehood of high society. He, one might say, is the only person who managed to see behind the brilliance of Helen’s beauty and popularity her vulgarity and lack of spirituality.
Both characters experience constant dissatisfaction with their lives and themselves. Prince Andrei and Pierre are characterized by the desire of all thinking people - the desire for a beautiful ideal. Their souls, their minds were not covered with a shell of self-satisfied stupidity and hypocrisy. The desire for an ideal forces them to turn to useful social activities, to the phenomenon of Napoleon, who, for all his shortcomings, was a bright personality. The path of quest of Pierre and Prince Andrey is a path of trial, error and doubt, but he develops them, improves them, and prevents them from getting bogged down in the swamp of social life. Prince Andrei and Pierre suffer many falls and disappointments on their difficult journey to find the meaning of life.
One of the brightest places in the novel is the description of the Battle of Austerlitz. It was this event that made Prince Andrei look at life differently. An ambitious thirst for glory and a brilliant victory led Tolstoy’s hero into battle. But after he had to endure the horror of death, great changes took place in his soul: “At that moment all the interests that occupied Napoleon seemed so insignificant to him, his hero himself seemed so petty to him, with this petty vanity and the joy of victory... Looking in the eyes of Napoleon, Prince Andrei thought about the insignificance of greatness, about the insignificance of life...” Such a revaluation of values is a severe but fair punishment for the creation of an idol, for vanity.
Love and family were of great importance in life for both Pierre and Prince Andrei. Bolkonsky's hasty marriage to a pretty but empty woman brought him a lot of disappointment. And yet, despite this, he takes his wife’s death hard, considering himself the main culprit. This death. Austerlitz plunged Prince Andrei into deep depression. And only love for Natasha Rostova revived the joy of existence in him.
Pierre's marriage to Helen brought him many troubles and moral suffering. This pushed him into the Masonic society and forced him for the first time to seriously address the question of the meaning of life.
And to him, just like Andrei Bolkonsky, his beloved woman restored faith in himself, restored a quiet, clear joy in his soul - the joy of life.
And the heroes’ disappointment in their idol, in the society around them and its ideals, failures in their personal lives and the feeling of the uselessness of their existence became the reasons for the spiritual crisis of the heroes. In one form or another, Andrei Bolkonsky and Pierre Bezukhov sought a way out of this crisis in useful social activities.
The year 1812 began a new page in the life of Tolstoy's heroes. As patriots of their Motherland, simply as decent people, they took upon themselves a part of those trials and difficulties, the grief that befell the Russian people. The turning point of the war, which in many ways became a turning point in the lives of Andrei and Pierre, is this. of course. Battle of Borodino. As a person who has a good sense of battle, Bolkonsky was in his place in that battle and could still bring a lot of benefit. But fate, stubborn in its desire to destroy Prince Andrei, finally overtook him. A senseless death from a stray grenade ended such a promising life. And before his death hour, Andrei saw a lot in a new way, understood the insignificance of all big and small troubles, grievances in the most important issue - the issue of life and death.
The Battle of Borodino was a great test for Pierre as well. Before Pierre's eyes, people suffered and died. Pierre is struck not only by death itself, but by the fact that those around him, having gotten used to it, no longer see the savagery of the destruction of people by people who call themselves reasonable. After all the trials, Pierre for the first time felt how high the price of life was. But even greater changes in his soul occurred after captivity. From a fat lazy gentleman he turned into a big and strong man. Hunger, cold, all the physical trials of captivity taught him to enjoy every little thing in life. And Tolstoy’s hero himself appeared differently in the eyes of the people around him. Ordinary soldiers appreciated Pierre's strength, his simplicity and kindness - all those qualities that were subject to ridicule by secular society. For the first time Pierre felt like a big, necessary, respected person. “Everyone sees that things are going so badly that it cannot be left like this and that the duty of all honest people is to resist to the best of their ability” - these are the words of the already experienced, world-wise Pierre. His passive contemplation of society's shortcomings is far in the past. From the mouth of this man comes a call to action. This call will be picked up and will lead in 1825 the nobles, whose hearts ache for the Fatherland, to Senate Square.
Andrei Bolkonsky and Pierre Bezukhov stand out among all the heroes of the novel “War and Peace” for their eternal restlessness, dissatisfaction with themselves and their lives. It is these qualities that keep their civic conscience awake in prosperity and prosperity. The intelligence and honesty of these heroes allow them to see the real carrier national culture- people. And the desire to make life easier ordinary people will lead them along the path of rapprochement with them.
In 1869, from the pen of L.N. Tolstoy came one of the brilliant works of world literature - the epic novel "War and Peace". The genre of the epic novel is the creation of Leo Tolstoy. The ideological and artistic meaning of each novel scene and each character becomes fully clear only in their connection with the comprehensive content of the epic, that is, in the context of historical events. The composition of “War and Peace” is also subject to the requirements of the genre. The plot is based on historical events. Secondly, the significance of the destinies of families and individuals is revealed. The epic novel combines detailed pictures of Russian life, battle scenes, artistic author's narration and philosophical digressions. The basis of the content of the epic novel is events of a large historical scale, “general life, not private life,” reflected in the destinies of individual people. Tolstoy achieved an unusually wide coverage of all layers of Russian life - hence the huge number of characters. The popular idea is not that ordinary people are depicted, but that at the moment of historical upheavals the nation acquires a directed movement that unites all layers of society. For T, the people are not peasants, but all Russian people opposing an external enemy, and the division occurs not along social lines, but according to friend or foe... People in "War and Peace" - this alive soul nations: Russian peasants, soldiers and partisans; townspeople who destroyed their property and left long-lived places: the nobility who created militias; the population leaving Moscow and showing “with this negative action the full strength of their national feeling.” The common good (victory) is portrayed by the writer as a necessary (natural) result of the unidirectional interests of many people, always determined by one feeling - the “hidden warmth of patriotism.” One of the chapters of compositions of methods for constructing a district is ANTITHESIS. Already in the title: “B and M”. two antonyms. It is war in its meaning, but peace is like 1) peace; 2) universality, the whole world; 3) peace with And short - community, community cell. Community implies commonality: everyday life, interests, economic. How is the correct model of the community device. The entire text is organized with this principle: episodes of peaceful and military life are compositionally interspersed. It shows h-ka in peacetime and wartime. The system of pers-zhey also determines the str-ru of the district. Favorite and least favorite heroes. Alive, having developed their spirit: Andrey, Pierre, Nikolai, Natasha. They are opposed to static heroes: Helen, Sonya (also contrasted to Natasha. She did not become Tolstoy’s ideal, because she is sweet, but cold (episode of a summer night) and she does not react, does not reflect). Anatol. Napoleon and Kutuzov. Eyes are an important detail of Tolstoy’s hero, a meaningful, deep look. The principle of antithesis is subject to 2 compositional nests: the War of 1805-7 and 1812. In the first war, the Russian army showed itself passively, the souls of Russians were not affected. The second is domestic, defensive. Andrey: Under Austerlitz there was nothing to defend. Don't take prisoners in Borodino, they entered my house. Composite nests yet. 1) families: family is a mirror of society. Different families are shown and they are also contrasted: 1) Families where there is a union between parents and children. Rostov, Bolkonsky. They are also opposed to each other: Rostov - absolute trust and all-consuming love. Natasha comes to her mother and tells her all her thoughts. Nikolai confesses to his father about his gambling debt, who helps him. The father dominates the Bolkonsky family. The obedience of children is built on the authority of the father. Maria is ready to learn geometry so that her father will be pleased with her. Farewell to father and Andrey. The father first gives orders if the son returns and the father has already died. Then he gives an order: I am glad that you are going to the front and will become a warrior, but it will hurt me if you die, but I will be sad if you do not behave like Bolkonsky’s son. Andrey: you shouldn’t tell me about this. These families bring up those people who will become the foundation of the Russian nation. 2) There is no connection between them. Kuragins, caragins, bergs. Kuragins - moral decay. All they do is oppose the French - they refuse the French language. The viability of each character in War and Peace is tested by popular thought. Among the people they turn out to be necessary best quality Pierre: strength. disdain for the comforts of life, simplicity, selflessness, lack of egoism" He strives to "enter this common life, to be imbued with your whole being by what makes them so.” Pierre feels his insignificance, the artificiality of his mental constructions in comparison with the truth, simplicity and strength of the soldiers and militias he saw on the Borodino field. The highest praise for Andrei Bolkonsky is the nickname “our prince”, given to him by the soldiers of the regiment. The rightness of Kutuzov in his dispute with Bennigsen at the council in Fili is emphasized by the fact that the sympathies of the peasant girl Malasha are on his side. Positive features Natasha Rostova is revealed with particular brightness at the moment when, before the French entered Moscow, she was animated patriotic feeling, forces her to throw family goods off the cart and take the wounded, and when she is in a Russian dance, admiring folk music, she shows all the power of the national spirit contained in her. The author creates many images of men and soldiers, whose judgments together make up the people's perception of the world. “People's thought” is embodied in many individualized images. Those people qualities that T. always considered to be the integral qualities of a Russian soldier - heroism, willpower, simplicity and modesty - are embodied in the image of Captain Tushin, yavl. a living embodiment of the people's spirit. Beneath the unattractive appearance of this hero lies inner beauty and moral greatness. Tikhon Shcherbaty – person. war. The spirit of rebellion and the feeling of love for his land, all that rebellion that T. discovers in the serf peasant, he brought together in this image. Platon Karataev brings peace to the souls of the people around him. He is completely devoid of egoism: meek and kind to every person. “People's thought” clearly sounds in the protest against Napoleon’s wars of conquest and in the blessing of the liberation struggle, in which the people defend their right to independence, to their national way of life. The folk is revealed in War and Peace, first of all, as universal, national. "Anna Karenina": began publishing in the magazine "Russian Bulletin" in January 1875 and immediately caused a storm of controversy in society and Russian criticism. The main thought is a family thought. Three types of family relationships. There are 3 storylines in the region: 1) history adultery Anna, triangle Anna - Vronsky - Karenin; 2) history of the Oblonsky family; 3) the love story of Levin and Kitty Shcherbatskaya. At first glance, these storylines weakly connected to each other. Anna is Stiva Oblonsky's sister. Kitty is Dolly Oblonskaya's sister; Anna and Levin meet twice in the novel (at the ball, when Levin proposes to Kitty, and shortly before Anna's death). The destinies of the heroes are intertwined. These three storylines are three versions of family, human relationships and human types. The peculiarity of the composition of the novel is that in the center there are two stories that develop in parallel: the story of the family life of Anna Karenina, and the fate of the nobleman Levin, who lives in the village and strives to improve the farm. These are the main characters of the novel. Their paths cross at the end of the work, but this does not affect the development of the events of the novel. There is an internal connection between the images of Anna and Levin. The episodes associated with these images are united by contrast, or according to the law of correspondence, one way or another, complement others. The principle of concentric arrangement of large and small circles of events in the novel. Tolstoy made Levin’s “circle” much wider than Anna’s “circle”. Levin's story begins much earlier than Anna's story and ends after the death of the heroine after whom the novel is named. The book ends not with the death of Anna (part seven), but with Levin’s moral quest and his attempts to create a positive program for the renewal of private and public life (part eight). Anna and Vronsky live for love, but sensual, carnal love. Karenin for social activities, and only Levin in the novel gives the final and correct answer: a person lives for the sake of love for people. Levin is the only one in the novel who thinks about philosophical questions. He comes to the conclusion that nothing needs to be changed in the patriarchal structure of the Russian village. Anna's death leads him to think about the fragility of human existence. He, too, is visited by thoughts of death, but his love for Kitty and the child, for the whole world, saves him and establishes a balance between him and the world: he finds the meaning of life in activities for people. "Resurrection". In comparison with “War and Peace” and “Anna Karenina”, “Resurrection” is new, openly social, “public”. In the structure of “Resurrection” 3 points are important: 1) the main task of the region is to artistically explore the entire existence general structure of life. The work shows various social strata: aristocracy, clergy, merchants, peasantry, military environment, English missionaries, workers, jailers. The setting is varied: Moscow and St. Petersburg, a poor village, manor house, prison, transit stages, judicial institutions, church, tavern, etc. The beginning of the district is Nekhlyudov’s crime against Katyusha Maslova (seduction of a girl). The rest of the material is strung on this plot core. 2) Rn thought about sin, repentance and the revival of the nobleman Nekhlyudov. However, in the final version, another thing is life offended people, in particular the innocently convicted Maslova. Maslova's trial is discussed in detail in her prison cell, as are all her meetings with Nekhlyudov. 3) The district is sharply journalistic. This is both a district review and a district sermon. The composition is single-line and is built in accordance with the main conflict. The world is divided into 2 unequal and hostile camps: the ruling classes and peasants, the urban poor, prisoners, political exiles. At the center of the story is the situation of the fall and rebirth of the heroes. The whole district excl. The first chapters are the story of the gradual internal revival of the h-ka. Katyusha Maslova is experiencing spiritual resurrection. In her life we can highlight 2 key stages: 1) Nekhlyudov’s meanness and 2) meeting with political prisoners, who believed her. Affected??? social, morals, f-fskogo x-ra. The title itself already contains all these problems. Sunday is not a day of the week, it is a capacious concept. 1) Christian meanings: spiritual rebirth (i.e. the fall of morals and the ascent of morals) Redemption. When Katya Maslova becomes a prostitute, even her name changes: Lyubka. She begins to lead a different life. The point of the trial is the beginning of the spirit of rebirth. The main character recognizes his old love. He sees in him not Lyubka, but Katya. He breaks through the wall with which she has surrounded herself and the spirit of rebirth begins. Tolstoy shows 2 ways of revival: 1) repentance, awareness. Nekhlyudov - an attempt to save another person. 2) Katya Maslova - becomes close to the revolutionaries and socialists. Her sacrificial path is serving the people. At the end of the district, when Nekhlyudov follows her into exile in Siberia. Transit points - Nekhlyudov's declaration of love, marriage proposal. She loves him, but will never allow herself to hang the yoke of the past on him. She chooses a revolutionary, he becomes her husband. “Resurrection” summed up all of Tolstoy’s TV in the 80s and 90s. On the negative side, the tasks of universal denunciation and moral preaching were achieved by this novel. For this work the writer was excommunicated from the church. Tolstoy's districts were translated into European languages during Tolstoy's lifetime. They were accepted by European readers. They had an impact on the worldview, the districts were discussed, Sunday - with an open ending, therefore there is a lot of controversy. Tolstoy had a significant influence on the tradition of the European region.
13. Creativity of A.P. Chekhov. A.P. Chekhov (01/17/1860 – 07/2/1904). 1 lane - TV 1 floor. 1880s (1879-1885). Collaborates with humorous magazines (eg “Oskolki”). Signed as: Antosha, Man without a spleen, My brother's brother, more often than not Antosha Chekhonte. During the first half of the 1880s. Chekhov works in different genres: humorous little thing(comic aphorisms, captions for drawings, parody calendars, reports, etc.) literary parody, feuilletons, anecdote, novella(“Living Goods”, “Belated Flowers”), the genre of the scene (a short humorous story, a picture from life, the comedy of which consists in conveying the conversation of the characters), comic novella (81-82): a humorous story, built according to novelistic laws, action-packed and with an unexpected resolution. (“Death of an Official” and “Fat and Thin” (1883), “Chameleon” and “I Quarreled with My Wife” (1884), “Dear Dog” and “Horse Name” (1885), “On Mortality” (1886)). The main novelistic devices: double denouement, violation of the traditions of the plot cliche, endings “contrastingly wrapped up in the beginning of the story”, ring composition, typical for a comic short story “motive of unfulfilled expectations”, etc. A special place is occupied by novella of morals, rising to biting satire. C ikle stories 1883 ode about officials, which are built on the same principle: the hero abruptly changes his behavior or says something opposite to what he was just saying out of inner conviction, “instinctively, by reflex,” automatically and instantly. "Chameleon" It was first published in the magazine “Oskolki”, in 1884 it was signed “A. Chekhonte”. Features of the genre. The action begins immediately. There are no detailed author's arguments. The part bears a special load. The plot of the story is based on a certain everyday conflict, a specific situation: the goldsmith Khryukin was bitten by a dog, and the police warden Ochumelov must resolve the conflict in the market square. Feature of the composition: the same scene is repeated several times. but it repeats itself, as in a mirror. Depending on who owns the dog, Ochumelov is ready to consider her or Khryukin to be the culprit of the incident. Little man theme. The story “The Death of an Official” shows a paradoxical situation when a small man pursues a strong one. Chekhov emphasizes in the little man a slave who has no self-esteem. A person turns into a rank. Another type of little person was developed by the author in the stories “Grief”, “Tosca”, etc. This is a humiliated, oppressed person, but retaining human dignity, for example, like the old cab driver Iona Potapov from the story “Tosca”. 2nd lane - TV in the 2nd half of the 80s - 90s. In 1885-1889 Chekhov begins his professional career literary activity as an employee of the monthly magazines “Northern Herald”, “Russian Thought”, “Life”. The stories and tales “Steppe”, “Name Day” (1888), “Fit”, “Boring Story” (1889) belong to this period. During this period, the collections “At Twilight” (1887), “Innocent Speeches” (1887), “Stories” (1888), and “Gloomy People” (1890) were published. Chekhov works a lot for the theater: the play “Ivanov” (1887-1889), the one-act play “Wedding” (1889, published 1890), the play “Leshy” (1889, published 1890; then remade into the play “Uncle Vanya”), vaudevilles “The Bear”, “The Proposal”, “Anniversary”, etc. The story “The Steppe” is considered to be a transitional stage in the writer’s television. In it, Chekhov, moving away from the concrete everyday localization of his early stories, changes spatial orientations and expands his field of vision. “The Steppe” was published in 1888. In "Northern Bulletin". The main themes and problems of the story: 1) the theme of the Motherland, its endless expanses, powerful people: 2) man and nature; 3) beauty and meaning of life: 4) national happiness: Happiness is understood as overcoming, gaining life experience, mastering living space, unity with people: 5) as well as becoming human personality. The subtitle of the story “The Story of One Trip” indicates that the work can be perceived on two levels: external, objective, realistic, and then it is almost an ethnographic essay, in which in front of the traveling 9-year-old boy Yegorushka, one picture successively replaces another. The name “Steppe”, which absorbs a whole complex of associations, takes the narrative to a symbolic, metaphysical level. The original plot is in that. that the story intertwines two storylines: human life and the life of nature. Landscape of the story: the steppe with human destinies included in it. The steppe is a holistic image-character. The author uses the technique of correlating the hero with nature (for example, the singing peasant woman is the singing grass. Dranitskaya is a black bird, Solomon is a plucked bird). The story can be roughly divided into 3 parts: Yegorushka’s past life, given retrospectively, in memories, very briefly: Yegorushka’s future, which is still unclear. In the present there is a bare steppe living its own life. Features of the composition: each chapter makes up a special story. Compositionally, the “Steppe” is built in the same way. like many of Chekhov's later stories, the beginning and end, as well as numerous repetitions, round out the narrative, forming a ring composition. Artistic features: 1) the author’s desire for maximum generalization (the steppe is the image of a yearning Motherland): 2) associativity: 3) sound painting; 4) a kind of chronotope: in the steppe, the present and the past overlap each other, time is compressed. Yegorushka makes her way from patriarchal antiquity to the world of civilization. The road in the work is a road from one space-time plane to another. This is Russian history, the history of Russia's path. In 1890, Chekhov took a trip to the island. Sakhalin, the result of which is the essay and journalistic book “Sakhalin Island” (1893-1894, separate edition 1895). In the same 1890, he bought the Melikhovo estate in the Moscow province, where he built schools, helped the poor and treated peasants, worked as a local doctor during the cholera epidemic of 1892-1893, participated in the general population census of 1897. In 1898-1900 The writer creates his most famous stories: the trilogy “The Man in a Case”, “Gooseberry”, “About Love”, as well as “Ionych” and “The Lady with the Dog”. Starts around 1893 new stage in the works of Chekhov(plays “The Seagull” (1896), “Uncle Vanya” (1897), “Three Sisters” (1900-1901, awarded the Griboedov Prize), “ The Cherry Orchard"(1903-1904)). In Vishn. In the garden in the center there is a sale of the estate. But from the first act to the end of the play, Ranevskaya’s drama immerses us in the driving process of general everyday life. The Cherry Orchard” by the representative. is a combination of comedy - “sometimes even farce,” as the author himself wrote, with gentle and subtle intrigue. While ridiculing their weaknesses and vices, the author at the same time sympathizes with them. The main conflict develops in the souls of the heroes. He concluded not in the fight for cherry garden, but in dissatisfaction with life, the inability to combine dreams and reality. Particular conflicts entailed changes in the depiction of the dramatic character. The author does not sharply characterize the individual's speech; rather, their speech merges into one melody. With this effect, the author created a feeling of harmony. Innovation of the playwright. The fact is that it departs from the prince of classical drama and reflects the dramatic world of not only the problems, but also the display of the psychological experiences of the heroes. Chekhov's plays became a new wave in theatrical art.
14.History, theoretical foundations and artistic practice of Russian symbolism. Poetry of A.A. Blok. Symbolism was first recognized as a new literary direction in an article by D.S. Merezhkovsky in 1893. He proclaimed 3 main elements of Russian literature: mystical content, symbols and the expansion of artistic impressionability. The word-symbol was considered as a sign with the help of which the artist comprehended the “mystical content”. Bryusov, Balmont, Sologub belonged to the generation of “senior” symbolists. Decadent moods in their work were reflected in the pessimistic perception of the world as a prison (Gippius, Sologub), in the self-deification of the “I” (Bryusov), motives of loneliness, lack of faith in life and one’s own strength. In the works of older symbolists, the apocalyptic theme associated with the image of the city clearly manifests itself. “Younger Symbolists”: A. Blok, A. Bely, Vyach.Ivanov, S. Solovyov, Ellis (L.L. Kobylinsky) - came to literature at the beginning of the 20th century. and acted as adherents of a philosophical and religious understanding of the world in the spirit of the late philosophy of Vl. Solovyova. The younger symbolists tried to overcome the extreme subjectivism and individualism of the older ones. Peering into the surrounding life in search of mysterious signs, many felt tectonic processes within Russian culture, Russian society, and all of humanity as a whole. The premonition of an impending catastrophe literally permeates all the lyrics of the mature Blok and A. Bely. The book “Gold in Azure” by A. Bely is imbued with the expectation of apocalyptic periods; in the books “Ashes” and “Urna” (1909), these expectations are replaced by tragic pictures of a dying Russia. And in the “City” cycle from the book “Ashes” a sign of revolution appears - a red domino, an ominous sign of an impending disaster. Main features of symbolism:- Dual world: departure from the real earthly and the creation of an ideal world of dreams and mysticism, existing according to the laws of Eternal Beauty; - Images-symbols: the language of premonitions, hints, generalizations, mysterious visions, allegories; -Symbolism of color and light: azure, purple, gold, shadows, shimmer; - The poet is the creator of ideal worlds - mystical, cosmic, divine; -Language: orientation towards classical verse, exquisite imagery, musicality and lightness of syllable, attitude to the word as a code, symbolic content of everyday words. Manifestos: 1) Merezhkovsky “On the causes of decline and new trends in modern Russian literature”; 2) Bryusov “Keys of Secrets”; 3) Vyach. Ivanov “Thoughts on Symbolism”; 4) Block “On the current state of Russian symbolism.” A.A.Blok(1880-1921) Blok’s early poems made up the first book, published in 1904, “ Poems about a Beautiful Lady" are multifaceted. These poems are symbolist, contrasting the mournful HERE and the beautiful THERE, the holiness of the hero's ideals, the desire for the promised land, a decisive break with the surrounding life, the cult of individualism, beauty. The plot of the cycle is the expectation of a meeting with the beloved, who will transform the world and the hero. The heroine, on the one hand, a real woman “She is slender and tall, // Always arrogant and stern.” a knight, a humble monk, ready for self-denial. “She” is the ethereal focus of faith, hope and love of the lyrical hero, "His second book. Unexpected joy", made the poet's name popular in literary circles. Among the poems are "Stranger", "A Girl Sang in the Church Choir", "Autumn Wave". Blok's hero becomes an inhabitant of noisy city streets, greedily peering into life. He is lonely, surrounded by drunkards, he rejects this world that horrifies his soul, like a booth, in which there is no place for anything beautiful and holy, the world poisons him, but in the midst of this drunken intoxication a stranger appears, and her image awakens bright feelings, it seems that she believes in beauty. Her image is surprisingly romantic and. alluring, and it is clear that the poet’s faith in goodness is still alive. Vulgarity and dirt cannot tarnish the image of the stranger, reflecting Blok’s dreams of pure, selfless love. And the poem “Autumn Wave” became the first embodiment of the theme of the homeland, Russia in Blok’s work. Nekrasov's intonations appear in the poems - love for the homeland - love-salvation, the understanding that it is impossible to imagine one's destiny in isolation from it. After a trip to Italy in 1909, Blok wrote the cycle ". Italian poems", in the spring of 1914 - cycle " Carmen". In these poems, Blok remains a subtle lyricist, praising beauty and love. Through the deepening of social trends ( cycle "City"), religious interest ( cycle “Snow Mask”), comprehension of the “terrible world”, awareness of the tragedy of modern man (the play “Rose and Cross”) Blok came to the idea of the inevitability of “retribution” ( cycle "Iambics"; poem "Retribution"). Hatred of the “well-fed” world, of the ugly, inhuman features of life (the “Terrible World” cycle, 1909-16) is persistently and strongly expressed in Blok’s work. Love lyrics Blok is romantic, she carries, along with delight and rapture, a fatal and tragic beginning (sections of the cycle “Snow Mask”, “Faina”, “Retribution”, 1908-13, “Carmen”, 1914). Theme of the poet and poetry. The idea of the poet's freedom, his independence from public opinion, superiority over the crowd runs through all the early poems on the topic of creativity. poems “To Friends” and “Poets. “To the Muse” creativity is not a reward, but hard work, which often brings disappointment and dissatisfaction rather than laurels and joy. Inspiration is sent by God, but any gift must be paid for, and the poet pays with personal happiness and peace, comfort and well-being. Blok considers the main theme of his work theme of the Motherland. From the first poems about Russia (“Autumn Wave”, “Autumn Love”, “Russia”) a two-faced image of the country appears - poor, pious and at the same time free, wild, banditry. During this period, the poet created cycles of poems “Motherland” and “On the Kulikovo Field”. The ambivalent attitude towards Russia is especially vividly embodied in the poem “To sin shamelessly, uncontrollably...”. Blok paints a realistic picture of contemporary Russia. And under the lamp by the icon / Drink tea, snapping the bill, / Then salivate coupons, / Open the pot-bellied chest of drawers... But the work ends with the words: Yes, and so, my Russia, / You are dearer to me of all lands. The revolution of 1917 was reflected in the largest post-October poem " Twelve"(1918). It reflected both real events and the poet's views on history, the essence of civilization and culture. The very beginning of the poem sets the reader up for struggle; two worlds stand in sharp contrast - the old and the new, just born: Black Evening. / White snow. /Wind, wind! /A man does not stand on his feet. Human passions and the raging elements act in unison, destroying everything that has become obsolete, personifying the old way of life - the bourgeois, the lady, and the priest: There is the lady in karakul. / She turned up to another... / - We were crying, crying... - / She slipped / And - bam - she stretched out! killers? Blok used many symbols in his poem: names, numbers, colors. The leitmotif of the poem appears from the first bars: in the gap and opposition of “white” and “black”. this is the color of the future. The image of Christ is also symbolic in the poem. Jesus Christ is the messenger of new human relationships, an exponent of holiness and purifying suffering. For Blok, his “twelve” are real heroes, since they are the executors of a great mission, carrying out a holy cause - a revolution. As a symbolist and mystic, the author expresses the holiness of the revolution religiously. Emphasizing the holiness of the revolution, Blok places the invisible walking Christ before these “twelve”.
15.Acmeism in Russian literature: main representatives, aesthetic program, artistic practice. Plaziya A.A. Akhmatova. Acmeism as a literary movement emerged from symbolism; the emergence of the movement dates back to the early 1910s. The formation of the new movement takes place first in the “Society of Admirers of the Artistic Word” (“Poetic Academy”), and then in the “Workshop of Poets” created in 1911, headed by N. Gumilyov and S. Gorodetsky. The most prominent representatives of the new trend included N. Gumilyov, A. Akhmatova, O. Mandelstam, S. Gorodetsky, M. Zenkevich, V. Narbut. Later they were joined by G. Adamovich, G. Ivanov, I. Odoevtseva, N. Otsup. The Acmeism program was proclaimed in such manifestos as: 1) “The Legacy of Acmeism and Symbolism” by N. Gumilyov; 2) “Some trends in modern Russian poetry” by S. Gorodetsky; 3) “Morning of Acmeism” by O. Mandelstam. The organs of the new trend were the magazines “Apollo” (1909-1917), created by the writer and historian S. Makovsky, and “Hyperborea”, founded in 1912 and headed by M. Lozinsky. The current has gotten three non-identical names: “acmeism” (from the Greek acme - flowering, peak, tip), “Adamism” (on behalf of the first member of Adam) and “clarism” (beautiful clarity). Philosophical basis This movement included pragmatism (philosophy of action) and the ideas of the phenomenological school (which advocated “the experience of objectivity,” “questioning things,” “accepting the world”). Among their literary teachers, the Acmeists singled out F. Villon (with his appreciation for life), F. Rabelais (with his inherent “wise physiology”), W. Shakespeare (with his gift of insight into the inner world of the human race), T. Gautier (a champion "impeccable forms"). Also the poets E. Baratynsky, F. Tyutchev and Russian classical prose. The artistic principles of Acmeism were entrenched in his poetic practice: 1) active acceptance of multi-colored and vibrant earthly life; 2) rehabilitation of a simple objective world that has “shapes, weight, time”; 3) a primitive bestial, courageously strong view of the world; 4) denial of transcendence and mysticism; 5) focus on the picturesqueness of the image; 6) transfer of psychological states with attention to the bodily principle; 7) expression of “longing for world culture”; 8) attention to the specific meaning of the word; 9) perfection of forms. The fate of Acmeism is tragic. He had to assert himself in a tense and moral struggle. He was persecuted more than once. Tragic fate A. Akhmatova, and the death of Mandelstam (died in a hospital barracks in the camp), Narbut (was shot at a quarantine transit point). The first victim was the leader of the movement, N. Gumilyov (he was shot). Anna Andreevna Akhmatova(surname at birth - Gorenko; 1889-1966) - one of the most famous Russian poets of the 20th century, writer, literary critic, literary critic, translator. Akhmatova was one of those who acted as a representative of the new movement of Acmeism (from Symbolism). In her early poems the world depicted clearly, vividly and accurately. “I don’t need my legs anymore...” Object-figurative expressions: water column, coolness, the heroine grabs the seaweed with her hand. She sees in front of her a bridge as distant as her former lover. The layer of water is dense and heavy; above the water there is light smoke into which her soul turns. The main theme is love. Dramatic moment: separation, approaching separation. Portrayed psychologically accurately. Collection "Evening".“I clenched my hands under a dark veil,” “I put the glove from my left hand on my right hand.” Uses a detail-thing, a detail-gesture. Collection "Rosary" 1914. The theme of love expands, while there is a complete rejection of the indifferent and frivolous attitude towards love, psychologism deepens, and a rejection of hedonism (sensual pleasures). “I escorted my friend to the front.” Then 1917. Collection “White Flock” and “Plantain”. Poems dedicated to the beginning of the 1st World War. "In memory of July 19, 1914." “Prayer” the heroine is ready to sacrifice everything so that the cloud over Russia becomes a cloud. Akhmatova did not accept the 1917 revolution in February and rejected the October one. “There was a voice for me, it called comfortingly” poem-voice monologue + author’s remarks. This form is more complex than all previous verses. The theme of emigration is “to leave or to stay?”. Akhmatova remains. “I am not with those who abandoned the earth to be torn apart by the enemies.” Positions: 1) those who abandoned the earth at a difficult moment - contempt; 2) “I always feel sorry for the exile” not of his own free will, they were expelled - pity; 3) those who remained, even on the verge of disaster, count themselves. In the early 20s, Akhmatova was forced to refuse to publish her poems, because... comes into conflict with the totalitarian regime. He is engaged in translations, the life and works of Pushkin. In the 1930s he wrote a series of poems, which he later combined into poem "Requiem". sources: Akhmatova’s personal tragedy (the arrest of her son), the execution of Nikolai Gumilyov, the repression of Akhmatova’s second husband. It's about about the general grief of the totalitarian regime, the grief of all Russian women on “this side of the prison bars.” "Instead of a preface." 3 plot layers: 1) personal grief of a mother who lost her son; 2) the grief of thousands of Russian women; 3) the grief of the Mother of God losing her son. Themes of life, death, madness, memory, monument are intertwined. The mother suffers so deeply that she calls for death, but madness comes. She is glad for him, because madness kills memory and frees her from suffering. A woman who is a mother can allow herself to forget, but a woman who is a poet cannot. She needs to preserve the memory of these “frenzied years.” In the epilogue of the poem, the theme of memory turns into the theme of a monument. 2 questions: 1) will they remember me, 2) for what exactly. “And I pray not for myself alone, but for everyone who stood there with me.” The monument is not to her, but to thousands of women who have lost loved ones. Place the monument “here, where it stood for 300 hours and where the bolt was not opened for me.” During the war, Akhmatova lived in St. Petersburg. Collection "Wind of War". The tragedy of the Leningrad blockade. “Oath” and “Courage” 1942 Akhmatova addresses the Russian intelligentsia. It is necessary to preserve Russian culture, the Russian word. Mature creativity"A Poem without a Hero." Action in 1913 in Petrograd. This is a kaleidoscope of life in a ghostly, fantastic city. The central event is a theatrical masquerade. There are a lot of allegories here. Lots of hints real people. Fragmentary episodes. In the life of the city, as at this ball, masks dominate instead of people. However, real drama ensues. A dragoon cornet with poetry committed suicide under the doors of the calambina, which rejected him. This plot is projected onto the life of an entire era. frivolous, superficial and tragic. There is a hero in it - a lyrical heroine who, from the heights of the 50s, looks back to her youth in 1913. And on the one hand, he admires this time, and on the other, he understands that it was then that something important was missed, which led the country to disaster. In Akhmatova’s mature lyrics, the theme of creativity develops in a new way. She explores the secret motives that lead to the creation of poetry collection “Secrets of the Craft”. Cycle "Northern Elegies". biblical and evangelical motifs. She had to endure two disgraces. During her second disgrace, she died in 1966.
16. Russian futurism: futurist groups, main representatives, manifestos, artistic practice. Poetry of V. Mayakovsky. Futurism (from Latin - future) arose almost simultaneously in Russia and Italy.
Futurism- one of the main avant-garde movements in European art beginning of the 20th century Russian futurism arose in 1910-1911. as an original artistic movement. Its history consisted of a complex interaction and struggle of 4 main groups: “Gilea” (Cubo-Futurists), “Association of Ego-Futurists”, “Centrifuge”, “Mezzanine of Poetry”. The earliest and most radical was “Gilea”, whose participants in numerous collections (“Zadok of Judges”, 1910; manifesto “A Slap in the Face of Public Taste”, 1912; “Dead Moon”, 1913, etc.) and speeches primarily defined “the face of futurism " In “The Slap of Public Taste,” the futurists proclaimed a revolution of form independent of content. The call for a revolution in form stemmed from the first and main postulate of the futurists - about art as life-creativity, about the subjective will of the artist as the decisive and main engine of human history. The coming revolution was desired because it was perceived as a massive massacre. an action that involves the whole world in the game. After the February revolution, ft. The "Gileans" formed an imaginary "Government of the Globe". Software for ft. became shocking to the average person (“A slap in the face to public taste” - manifesto). F. was most afraid of indifference. A necessary condition for its existence was the atmosphere of literature. scandal. Optimal cheat. reaction to TV ft. there was aggressive rejection and hysterical protest, which was provoked by extremes in the behavior of the foot. (Malevich appeared with a wooden spoon in his buttonhole, Mayakovsky in a woman’s yellow jacket, Kruchenykh wore a sofa cushion on a cord across his shoulder). The principle of their work is the principle of “shift”, which was transferred to the literature of their avant-garde painting. Lexical renewal was achieved by depoetizing the language, introducing stylistically inappropriate words, vulgarisms, etc. terms. Word of the foot. lost its halo of sacredness, it became objectified. Syntactic. displacements appeared at feet. in violation of the laws of logical compatibility of words, refusal of punctuation marks. Great value ft. gave the visual impact of the text. Futurists advocated the destruction of the conventional system of literary genres and styles and insisted on unlimited “word creativity and word innovation. Creation of original neologisms - common feature in the works of such dissimilar poets as I. Severyanin and V. Khlebnikov, V. Mayak-ii and A. Kruchenykh. A bright innovator in the field of language was V. Khlebnikov, at the beginning of 1920. he entered special term to denote such a language - “zaum”, “abstruse language”. Calling for Pushkin and other classics to be thrown off the ship of modernity, the Futurist poets were unable to break the ties that connected them with the primordial traditions of Russian culture. The traditions of Russian futurism started from the poetics of “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” through the odic poetry of the 18th century. (G.R. Derzhavin), classical poetry of the 19th century (A.S. Pushkin), decadence late XIX- beginning of the 20th century and through the poetry of symbolism. Mayak- a poet of accented verse with a distinct oratorical intonation (in the text there is no regular alternation of stressed and unstressed syllables. In long lines with stressed syllables, from 1 to 6 unstressed syllables are placed). At the same time, there is a rhyme; Mayak-go's rhyming thinking was generally strict and original. Early lyrics. City theme. The idea of urban civilization as a second, man-made nature, which h-k created around himself in contrast to the first. The poem “To Signs”, the theme of which is “new urban beauty.” “Iron Books” - street signs on tin - are indeed intended for reading. The subject of poetic inspiration here is the city, which is beautiful because it was created for the purpose. Theme of loneliness. The main topic becomes psychological condition his lyrical hero, the cat; despite the cordiality of the signs, he feels like he’s in a big city lonely. This hero is drawn from books, from indoor life to the street, to people. However, in the restaurant you can see a chewing creature. It was to him that Mayak addressed in verse "Here!":“In an hour from here into a clean alley / Your flabby fat will leak out.” The city is inhabited not by people, but by a crowd, which Mayak contemptuously calls “a hundred-headed louse.” Main opposition early creativity: I - you (“Could you?” 1913); he has so far romantic shit, reflects duality.“Listen!”(] 914): spitting pearls. War theme (“War has been declared”, “Mom and the evening killed by the Germans”). Compassion for the victims of war. "To you!" - political continuation of “Here!” Satirical theme- Parody hymns (to dinner, to the scientist, to the critic, to the judge) "A cloud in pants" (1915), which brought him real fame. The Lighthouse rebellion is addressed to the Creator, cat. created love-torment, love-suffering. The hero of Mayak-go claims to curtail God, declaring Him “a half-educated, tiny big thing.” This is how the grandiose idea of remaking the universe grows. But the only carrier of rebellion is the poet’s lonely “I.” The riot happens in his mind, unfolding like one big metaphor. A challenge thrown to the sky: “Hey, you! Sky! Take off your hat,” remains simply unheard. The conflict stated in “Cloud in Pants” was deepened and developed in the poems “Spine Flute” (1915) and “War and Peace” (1916), where the preaching of a harmonious world order by the forces of the h-ch himself was combined with the readiness of the hero Mayak-go sacrifice yourself for the sake of the future. This collision was brought to its complete exhaustion in the poem “Ch-k” (1916-1917), the final, final project of the pre-revolutionary Mayak. Revolution The lighthouse was greeted with enthusiasm. During the revolution and civil war he renamed the Cubo-Futurists into Komfutov (communist-futurists). Then he created LEF - the left front of the arts, which, in his opinion, was supposed to unite the leaders of the Kura close to the revolution - not only writers, but also musicians, artists, theater and film directors. Then LEF was not enough for him, he wanted to become “to the left of LEF”, and he created the “New LEF”. Then he once again reformed his group and renamed it REF - the revolutionary front of art. Z poet's wish- put into poetic form a political slogan, propaganda poster, trade advertising, current information, satirical feuilleton, write odes in honor of the leaders of the Bolshevik Party and revolutionary holidays. In the first post-October verses, Mayak calls his poems marches And orders:“Our March”, “Left March”, “Order for the Army of Arts”, “Order No. 2 for the Army of Arts”. Mayak's poems in the first post-revolutionary years sound like an oratorical speech at a rally. The “I”, to whom one prefers, almost disappears from his poems. "We". Mayak speaks as if on behalf of a new breed of people, cat. brought to life by the revolution. In 1918 he writes play "Mystery Bouffe". Mystery - area staging biblical stories, and the word “Buff” referred to the tradition of a cheerful circus performance. Two levels, sublimely religious and comically circus, determined the style and poetics of this piece. The scene of action is declared to be “the entire universe,” which the ark plows in search of the “Promised Land.” This turns out to be the “Communar World”, that is, the land rinsed by the revolution - the “holy washerwoman” - and turned into a universal Commune. Following “Mystery,” he wrote the heroic poem “150 million” (1919), inspired by the prospects of the approaching world revolution (the revolutionary fire in 1919 was already burning in Bulgaria, Hungary, and Germany). Main character poem - the hundred and fifty million people of Russia, united in the “united Ivan”, crushed the stronghold of the world bourgeoisie - America. M wrote 2 satirical plays “Bedbug” and “Bathhouse”. In the play “The Bedbug” of 1929, the poet declares an irreconcilable war on philistinism in all its manifestations. “Former worker, former party member, now groom,” Prisypkin, who renamed himself Pierre Skripkin, reveals his philistine essence in actions and speeches. The inhabitants of the “young people’s” hostel, people from the future, into which the viewer finds himself along with the heroes of the play, perceive Prisypkin and the microbe of philistinism, which he is struck by, as phenomena incompatible with the laws, views, way of life of the new society. va. The mercilessness in exposing philistinism gives the play a combative, offensive character. The play “Bath” (1930) is aimed at an equally dangerous phenomenon - bureaucracy. The play is a fusion of dreams and reality, an interweaving of the present and the future. This is achieved by using fiction, which is woven into the real life of the inventor Chudakov and his comrades. The whole action comes down to the struggle for the time machine created by Chudakov, which will allow him to see the future, to be convinced of the reality of the dream, which is brought closer every day by the selfless work of thousands of people. The acute conflict between the real builders of the new society and Pobedonosikov, who stands in the way of the society to the future, is growing into a decisive battle between the new norms of life and bureaucracy, with Pobedonosikovism. The fantastic nature of the plot allows the poet to show the unacceptability of bureaucratic principles for the society of the future: the time machine throws out those “who are not needed for communism.” Political acuity in the formulation of the problem, accuracy of the poetic word, ingenuity in creating stage action- distinctive features of this play by M.
17. Main trends in the development of Russian realism of the late 19th and early 20th centuries: main representatives, artistic practice. Creativity of I. Bunin. Realism in RL belongs to the ageless and eternal phenomena, and at the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th centuries. in the works of L.N. Tolstoy and A.P. Chekhov, he is experiencing a powerful rise. In Tolstoy: the poem “Resurrection”, “Father Sergius”, “The Devil”. Chekhov: the play “The Cherry Orchard”, the stories “The Bishop”, “The Bride” (1903). Later, a group of young writers entered Russian literature, continuing the traditions of classical realism. This is V.G. Korolenko, A.I. Kuprin, M. Gorky, I.A. Bunin, B. Zaitsev, I. Shmelev, V. Veresaev, L. Andreev. The work of these writers uniquely reflected the interaction of the realistic method with the new trends of the era. In 1902, Gorky became one of the organizers of the publishing partnership “Znanie”, and in 1904 he began publishing collective collections of prose and poetry. At the center of the work of the Znanievo writers was the theme of intense resistance to the people around him social evil, the theme of awakening consciousness, the formation of personality. L. Andreev, I. Bunin, V. Veresaev, S. Gusev-Orenburgsky, A. Kuprin, A. Serafimovich, M. Gorky and others collaborated in nineteen collections of “Knowledge” that appeared in 1904-1907. I. Bunin (1870-1953). TV developed in two directions: poetry and prose. Symbolist poetry with the influence of impressionism. The prose is realistic. Mine literary path Bunin began as a poet. His earliest poem is dated 1883. At first he was a student of Nikitin, Koltsov, and partly also of Nekrasov. Bunin followed them in developing peasant themes, adopted the motifs of their lyrics, and imitated the structure and rhythm of their poems. While at the gymnasium, in January 1886 he wrote the poem “In the Village Cemetery” - about the hard lot of the Russian peasant. characteristic of one of Bunin's first poems to appear in print, “The Village Beggar” (1886). In its center is the mournful image of an old peasant, a homeless sufferer, overcome by too much need, forced to live out his days on beggarly alms. We find sad thoughts about the homeland in a number of poems “Motherland” (1891), “Motherland” (1896). Gradually, nature became for Bunin that healing and beneficial force that gives a person everything: joy, wisdom, beauty, a sense of infinity, diversity and integrity peace, a sense of unity, kinship with him. Recreating pictures of Russian nature and the image of the Motherland, the poet cannot free himself from the feeling of grief. “Yes, my native land is not happy now!” - he exclaims in the poem “In the Steppe” (1889), merging together the feeling of his homeland and the feeling of grief for it. In 1903, the Academy of Sciences awarded Bunin the Pushkin Prize for the poetry collection “Falling Leaves” (1901) and the translation of “The Song of Hiawatha” (1896) by the American poet G. Longfellow, based on the tales of North American Indians (in 1909 the Academy of Sciences would choose Bunin as its honorary member). In 1903-1908. mournful poems arose about modernity, about Russia, where everything was shifting - “the great and the vile,” despotism and slavery, humility, heroism and cruelty. Printing the short poetic cycle “Rus” in 1908, Bunin reveals the complex, contradictory world of Russia. The poem that closes it, “Wasteland,” is perhaps Bunin’s most socially acute poem of those years. The theme of the people and their suffering is combined with the lyrical and mournful voice of the author. Bunin's realistic poetry was associated with the motives, moods, images and themes of his prose. TO artistic prose Bunin converted at the age of sixteen. The unfinished sketch “The Lark's Song” and the fairy tale “The Light of Life” (1886 - 1887) were a kind of lyric poetry in prose; in which an attempt is made to express the youthful rapture of the beauty of nature, passionate but vague dreams of happiness, and creativity. Bunin’s first love story “Infatuation” (1886 - 1887) is also full of lyrical animation; the entire narrative bears the imprint of bookish imitation. The theme of first love is in the plot of the story “First Love”. Young Bunin acted as a “writer of the offended and oppressed.” Bunin's earliest epic works, such as the story "Nefedka" (1887) or the essays "Two Wanderers" (1887 - 1889) and "Convulsive" (1891), introduce the reader to the world of the village poor, beggars, tramps, lonely wanderers, the destitute, the homeless people The theme of the moral responsibility of the noble intelligentsia to the people was raised in the stories “Tanta” (1893), “News from the Motherland” (1895). In many works, the writer shows the desolation of the noble estate, the savagery of its last inhabitants (“In the Field”). In his stories, novellas, and poems, Bunin shows the whole range of problems of the late 19th - early 20th centuries. The main theme of the early 1900s was the theme of Russia's fading patriarchal past. The stories “Antonov Apples”, “Pines”, “Zakhar Vorobyov” and others were written. They capture the beauty of Russian nature, the tragedy of a poor, disadvantaged people. We see the most vivid expression of the problem of the collapse of the foundations of noble society in the story “ Antonov apples" Bunin regrets Russia's fading past, idealizing the noble way of life. Bunin's best memories of his former life are saturated with the smell Antonov apples. In the stories " A good life", "Mr. from San Francisco" and others, the life of the city bottom with taverns and cheap rooms, the world of human passions is revealed. In the mid-1910s, he moved away from the theme of Russia's patriarchal past to criticism of bourgeois reality. The stories “The Good Life”, “The Mister from San Francisco” and others reveal the life of the city bottom with taverns and cheap rooms, the world of human passions. Bunin describes in great detail the luxury that represents the true life of the gentlemen of modern times. At the center of the work is a collective image of an American bourgeois millionaire who does not even have his own name, since no one remembered it. The consumer society has erased everything human in itself, the ability for empathy and condolences. Bunin perceived the October Revolution as a social drama. In 1920 he emigrated to France. There he continues his creative activity, creates an autobiographical novel “The Life of Arsenyev”, the stories “Mowers”, “Lapti”, writes a cycle of short stories “ Dark alleys" In the collection " Dark alleys» main topic- Love. The book “Dark Alleys” is a whole gallery of female portraits. Here you can meet girls who have matured early, and self-confident young women, and respectable ladies, and prostitutes, and models, and peasant women. Women's images play in stories main role, male - auxiliary, secondary. More attention is paid to men's emotions and their feelings. The stories amaze with the variety of shades of love: the simple-minded but unbreakable affection of a peasant girl for the master who seduced her (“Tanya”); fleeting dacha hobbies (“Zoyka and Valeria”); a short one-day novel (“Antigone”, “Calling Cards”); passion leading to suicide (“Galya Ganskaya”); simple-minded confession of a minor prostitute (“Madrid”). The heroine of the story " Cold autumn“, who lost her fiancé, loves him for thirty years and believes that in her life there was only that autumn evening, and everything else is an “unnecessary dream.” In the story " Sukhodol"The writer reconsiders the tradition of poetizing estate life. The ideological orientation of the work is contradictory, for Bunin, truthfully depicting the horrors of serfdom, the cruelty and degeneration of the owners of the estate, at the same time strives to substantiate the idea of the blood unity of landowners and peasants, of the special closeness of their way of life and psyche. The Sukhodolsk chronicle is refracted through the perception of the former serf Natalia. She is submissive to her masters, incapable of condemnation and protest. The Khrushchevs are reputed to be the kindest gentlemen. On the other hand, they keep their peasants at bay. There are many oddities in the Khrushchev family: the grandfather, Tonya and Natalya are going crazy, either from boredom or from love. The house of the pillar nobles is gloomy and gloomy, like the life of its inhabitants. It seems that the Sukhodol residents live in isolation from the outside world. In the entire village there is the same desolation as in their souls, the death of old Khrushchev, killed by Gevraska, is predetermined by fate itself. Women, living out their lives, live only with memories of the past. Above the novel Life of Arsenyev“Bunin worked for a long time, with breaks. Novel is constructed as a free lyrical-philosophical monologue, where there are no usual heroes, where it is impossible to highlight the plot in the usual sense on the left. But “The Life of Arsenyev” is not just a lyrical diary of distant days. The first impressions of childhood and adolescence, life in the estate and study at the gymnasium, pictures of Russian nature and the life of the impoverished nobility serve only as a canvas for Bunin’s philosophical, religious and ethical concept. Autobiographical material is transformed by the writer. A huge mosaic picture of Russia is made up of many miniatures. “The Life of Arsenyev” is dedicated to the journey of the soul of a young hero who perceives the world with an unusually fresh and acute perception of the world. Passionate and deep feeling permeates the last, fifth book of the novel - “Lika”. It was based on the experiences of Bunin himself, his youthful love for Varya Pashchenko. Time is powerless to kill a true feeling. “Recently I saw her in a dream - the only time in my entire life long life without her” - this is how “Arsenyev’s Life” ends. In the novel, death and oblivion recede before the power of love, before the heightened sense - of the hero and the author - of life. After being awarded in 1933 Nobel Prize Bunin has become a symbol of Russian literature all over the world.
18.Creativity of S. Yesenin. Issues. Artistic originality. S. Yesenin (1895-1925) Born in the Ryazan province into the cross family. He studied at the zemstvo school in the village. Konstantinov, church-teacher's office in Spas-Klepiki, moving to Moscow. This is the peasant elite! There he worked as an assistant proofreader at Sytin's printing house, attended meetings of the Surikov circle and lectures at the Shanyavsky People's University. (The Surikov circle was founded in 1872 by the famous peasant poet Ivan Zakharovich. Surikov as a literary association of writers from the people). His early poems were rehashes of Koltsov, Nadson, and imitative developments of folklore motifs and genres. There was a lot of bad taste and provincialism in them. Quite quickly I realized their limitations. Important point- acquaintance with Blok and Klyuev. Blok gave him a recommendation, and at the end of 1915 Yesenin published his first book of poems in St. Petersburg - “Radunitsa”. Soon he was warmly received in St. Petersburg salons, and critics started talking about him as “Ryazan Lele.” The first period of TV-va E. (1914-1916) called Kitezh. (Klyuev attracted E. to the role of a salon poet: it is necessary to play the role of a “shepherdess” - boots, a jacket, a peasant talk. 1) Klyuev took into account the emerging fashion for everything “national”, thereby hoping to win a place in the literary environment. 2) Klyuev, who considered himself a representative of the ancient Russian nation, called E. to go to the people from the spoiled city center). Yours of this period reflects the sacred Russian dual world. In everyday life, he is a pagan, but he believes in Christ and goes to church. In the center of Yesenin’s world is “blue” Rus', a peasant hut with images (“In the Hut”). The main motive is grace (“Black, then smelling howl!”). The landscape is static; built on metaphor. Christ walks among people and calls the hero into the oak groves. The lyrical hero of E.’s early poems most often appears in 2 forms: 1. pilgrim, walking through the fields and forests of Rus' with secret faith in Jesus and the Mother of God and 2. Pagan shepherd (shepherd-shepherd, he is involved in the works of Christ): I pray at the dawn, I take communion by the stream. Pagan and Christian merge in the image of “double feeling.” An example of double feeling is the verse of early E. "Song of the Dog" (1915), in which the whelping red bitch appears almost as the Virgin Mary. Her puppies are drowned, and one of them, like a red moon in the sky, turns out to be taken to heaven. The dog's tragedy is projected onto the gospel story. Second period - 1916 - 1919. Yesenin is a utopian. the search for an ideal - the kingdom of universal happiness, earthly paradise. The idea of Russia-Inonia, another Rus' (land of ancestors, mythological eternity). In the small poems “Comrade”, “Singing Call”, “Otcharya”, “Advent”, “Transfiguration”, “Rural Book of Hours”, “Inonia”, “Jordanian Dove”. He talks about God's chosen country, Russia, cat. should become an earthly paradise. Christ is close to the Russian revolution - he was born in a manger and a peasant took him into his callous hands. In the poems and poems of this period, the image of the baby Jesus and, in parallel, the image of the calving sky are important: “The calving sky licks the red heifer.” A new Russia is born and brings to the world the Third - peasant - testament. The new god is a peasant god, a cow god, without a cross and torment, so it sounds like blasphemy: “I spit out the sacrament.” 1918 gr.war - conflict with Klyuev, lost faith in utopia. Dystopia. In the poem “Mare's Ships,” the Third Testament turned into a pestilence. Horses are dying on city streets - Apocalypse: “mad glow of corpses”). Who is to blame? Element of October (Metaphor: the October wind will devour the groves). He renounces the February and October illusions. 1919 own poetic manifesto - “The Keys of Mary”. In “The Keys of Mary” he wrote about the ancient ch-ka and its mythology, the secret of which was known to the ancient Slavic culture shepherds and farmers. This art was connected with the sky. The remains of this culture are preserved by the Russian village (This is peasant folklore - the basis of Russian imagery), cat. in the era of bourgeois, “urban” civilization, it dies “like a fish splashed out on the shore of the earth by a wave.” Meets Anatoly Mariengof and Vadim Shershenevich. ( approximately 1920-1924 Imagist period) Imagists affirm the idea of the intrinsic value of the image in poetry (the content is the cecum of art). The image is built on logic, talent and intuition are dubious things. The category of beauty was also banished, anti-aestheticism and the physiological nature of the image were welcomed. IN in a certain sense Yesenin followed these principles: “The sun grows cold, like a puddle that a gelding has made,” “Over the groves, like a cow, the dawn lifted its tail.” The “Imagist” period of E.’s creativity begins with the transformation monk and shepherd into a hooligan. 1920 poem “Hooligan”, “Confession of a Hooligan”. In them, not only the lyrical hero changes, but also the landscape, the cat. becomes uncomfortable, gloomy, hostile. Yesenin strengthens the motive of his rejection, calling himself a robber, horse thief, thief, boor, charlatan, brawler. But at the same time he emphasizes in every possible way that at heart he remained as before as a village hick. In 1920 he began working on the dramatic poem “Pugachev,” but he was interested in Nestor Makhno, who was then called the new Pugachev. But writing a poem about him was too dangerous. E. saw in Makhno the possibility of a third way in the revolution, but it collapsed. 1922-1923 cycle of poems “Moscow tavern.” (MK)(feeling of hopeless impasse) Paradoxical combination of the theme of drunken decay with amazing poetic power. The disintegration in “MK” is Asian-style, cruel and rampant. One of the most expressive poems of the cycle ended like this: You, my Scattered... Scattered... Asian side. The lyrical hero E is just as cruel in this cycle. Purification for the hero of “MK” could only come through death and a religious return to the lost national soil. “Soviet Rus'” in the works of S. Yesenin E. greeted the revolution enthusiastically. At first he talks about God's chosen country of Russia, cat. should become an earthly paradise. In the poems and poems of this period, the image of the baby Jesus and, in parallel, the image of the calving sky are important: “The calving sky licks the red heifer.” But the civil war cooled the ardor. In the poem “Mare's Ships,” Paradise turned into pestilence. Horses are dying on city streets - Apocalypse: “mad glow of corpses”). Who is to blame? Element of October (Metaphor: the October wind will devour the groves). He renounces the February and October illusions. He was close to the Essayers. He considered Makhno's Republic as a new path for Russia. After traveling to America, In 1924-1925 An attempt to overcome one's discrepancy with reality. "I accept" concept. He makes a peacemaking gesture towards the Bolsheviks and tries to join the new Russia. E. writes a kind of small lyrical trilogy - “Return to the Motherland”, “Soviet Rus'”, “Departing Rus'” - in which for the first time he turns to the life of the Soviet village. The language of E.’s utopia is alien to this village, which gave rise to a bitter confession: “The language of my fellow citizens has become like a stranger to me, / In my own country I am like a foreigner.” Or, as he summed it up in another verse: “Who am I? What am I? Is it just a dreamer, / Lost the blue of his eyes in the darkness.” He writes about “steel Rus'”, about how he wants to “lift up his pants and run after the Komsomol”. In “Letter to a Woman” E. is generally inclined to condemn himself for staying away from the struggle for the future, efforts to speak up for the new tongue. Yesenin's last major works are of a final nature. In 1925, one after another, he wrote the cycle “Persian Motifs”, the poems “Anna Snegina” and “The Black Man”. In “Persian Motives”, a conventional, invented Persia arises - a country of poetry and love, an illusory world of peace and silence. In “The Black Man,” the subject of the image was an empty, devalued life, in the face of which the poems are exposed as something illusory and deceitful. The poet's double, the Black Man, confesses with cynical composure. Yesenin painfully felt that he was living the fate of some “adventurer,” “a scoundrel and a drunkard.” Until now it was a mask. In “The Black Man,” the mask was fused to the face and was torn off with blood and flesh. Yesenin conceived “Anna Snegina” as an epic, “Nekrasov” narrative from peasant life, but in the end he created a lyrical confession. The plot of “Anna Snegina” unfolds against the backdrop of the men’s struggle for land in 1917. The hero of the poem, a double of Yesenin himself, also named Sergei, returns to his native place to rest. His friend Pron Ogloblin goes with him to the estate of the landowner Snegina (with whom Sergei once had an affair) to take land. Three people who love each other face a painful conflict - in order to eventually part forever: Anna goes to London, Sergei to the capital, Pron is killed by the whites. Anna from emigration sends him a letter of recognition." “But you are still dear to me, / Like the homeland and like spring.” And if at the beginning of the poem there is resentment towards a life in which there is so little love (“But they loved us little”) , then at the end the opposite is stated: (We all loved during these years, / But that means they loved us too.) The author of “Anna Snegina” forgives life for everything that “did not come true” in it, blessing it.