Tamerlane
The method of reconstructing a person’s appearance from his skull was invented by the Russian anthropologist Mikhail Gerasimov (1907–1970). He grew up in a doctor's family, from adolescence he worked in an anatomical museum and spent a lot of time in the morgue, studying the connections between the soft tissues of the face and the bones of the skull. From the age of 14, Gerasimov took part in excavations of ancient burials. Based on observations and experience, he came to the conclusion that the thickness, type and relief of the skin on the skull and skeleton directly depend on the relief of the bones and their structure. This is how the technique of reconstructing a face from a skull was born, which is still used by anthropologists from around the world. Gerasimov created more than 200 sculptural portraits-reconstructions of historical figures and ancient people, including Yaroslav the Wise, Ivan the Terrible, Andrei Bogolyubsky and Ivan the Terrible. On June 22, 1941, his expedition opened Tamerlane’s grave, after which a long study began. Superstitious people consider this fact barbaric and the cause of the Great Patriotic War, but Gerasimov himself saw this as luck, and considered the reconstruction of the image of Tamerlane his best work.
Today’s anthropologists also work according to Gerasimov’s method: they take a skull and cover it layer by layer with soft tissue, focusing on the relief of the bones. Some still do it by hand, but most prefer computer technology to produce an impressive 3D model.
Cleopatra
In the popular consciousness and cinema, Cleopatra is a beautiful Caucasian woman. However, Egyptologist from the University of Cambridge Sally Ann Ashton claims that by the time she came to power, Cleopatra’s family had already lived in Egypt for 300 years, which means that Egyptian and Greek blood were mixed in her and her skin tone was dark. Ashton created her image of Cleopatra in 2008 after serious research that lasted more than a year. The basis for the three-dimensional reconstruction was the surviving ancient images of the Egyptian queen and an analysis of her genealogy. The computer-generated image of a dark, friendly woman does not really fit in with the image of the fatal beauty who was the lover of Julius Caesar and Mark Antony.
Nicholas the Wonderworker
Scottish anthropologist Caroline Wilkinson, a professor at the University of Dundee, recreated the appearance of St. Nicholas, who is revered in Russia as Nicholas the Wonderworker, and in the West is considered the prototype of Santa Claus.
The basis for 3D modeling was the results of an examination of the relics, which are kept in the Basilica of St. Nicholas in the Italian city of Bari. In 1953, Professor Luigi Martino, who was involved in the autopsy of the relics, took black and white photographs of the skull, as well as X-rays of the skull in front and profile. Features of the bones helped Wilkinson reconstruct the shape of her face, her teeth suggested the shape of her lips, and her eye sockets suggested her eyes. The details were completed by graphics specialists: they superimposed the skin structure on the three-dimensional image, and also added wrinkles, hair and a beard to the model.
However, not all Christians were happy with the results - many considered the image not as spiritual as they were used to seeing the saint on the icon. Russian artists created a more soulful image of St. Nicholas the Wonderworker, relying on the iconographic face of the saint and modern technologies.
Tutankhamun
Last fall, the world was shocked by the publication of a three-dimensional image of Tutankhamun, created by a team of scientists exploring his tomb. The first full-length portrait of an Egyptian pharaoh is based on an analysis of the anatomical features of the mummy - in total, about 2,000 scans of the preserved remains were made.
The resulting image turned out to be surprisingly ugly and far from the majestic image that was captured in the golden funerary mask of the pharaoh, which is kept in the collection of the Cairo Museum. The computer-generated Tutankhamun is depicted as a lame, effeminate youth with prominent teeth, an overbite, wide hips and narrow shoulders.
William Shakespeare
Shakespeare scholars still cannot agree on what the famous English playwright really looked like: all the portraits and busts of the classic were made after his death. Many people mistake the death mask found in 1849 in Germany as a genuine image of Shakespeare. German criminologists recently confirmed that it belongs to Shakespeare, as it matches other images, in particular with a bust installed on the playwright’s grave by his relatives. It was this death mask that became the basis for the reconstruction of British specialists led by Stuart Clark: in 2010, they recreated a 3D model of Shakespeare’s face specifically for the film “Death Masks” on History Channel 13. However, Shakespeare scholars refused to recognize the results of the reconstruction as reliable, since They are not completely sure that the Darmstadt mask was actually removed from Shakespeare's face.
Richard III
In 2012, the skeleton of the legendary English king Richard III, who died at the Battle of Bosworth in 1485, was found in a car park in Leicester - it was previously believed that his body was thrown into the River Suar and lost forever. This discovery sparked a global study that included DNA analysis of the king's remains and living descendants. One of the results was the reconstruction of the appearance of Richard III, which is especially important since lifetime images have not survived.
The restoration of the appearance was carried out by the same researcher as in the case of St. Nicholas, Caroline Wilkinson: this time she started from the data of genetic examination and the shape of the king’s skull. The image was similar to portraits painted after the monarch's death, including the earliest version - a portrait of Richard III from the collection of the Society of Antiquaries of London, created in the 1520s.
Johann Sebastian Bach
Another of Wilkinson's works is a reconstruction of the appearance of the composer Johann Sebastian Bach. This work, carried out as a result of a thorough analysis of Bach's remains in 2008, caused much criticism, as the image turned out to be unlike famous portraits and busts of the composer. However, a copy was exhibited at the Bach House Museum in the German city of Eisenach and was recognized by a number of experts. Wilkinson's work process can be seen in the video.
Dante
In 2007, researchers from the universities of Bologna and Pisa restored the appearance of the author of the Divine Comedy, Dante Alighieri. The portrait is based on detailed descriptions and a plaster cast made by Italian anthropologist Fabio Frassetto during the last opening of the poet's grave in 1921. Restoring the shape of the chin was especially difficult, since the jaw of Dante’s preserved skull was missing, and scientists selected a suitable one from the Frassetto collection, having examined 90 skulls from the Museum of Anthropology. As a result, the newest Dante turned out to be more humane and gentle than he is represented in posthumous images created from the memories of his contemporaries. His characteristic aquiline nose has become noticeably shorter.
Robespierre
Perhaps the most expressive from a visual point of view is the work of the French studio Visualforensic. The image of the revolutionary Maximilian Robespierre is the result of a 3D reconstruction based on a death mask made by Madame Tussauds. Not only computer graphics specialists are involved in creating the image, but also anthropologists, pathologists, and criminologists who investigate real crimes. One of the creators of the portrait, French anthropologist and facial reconstruction specialist Philippe Frosch, commented on his work as follows: “There is no doubt that we see fear in his gaze. High reliability and clarity of the reconstruction was made possible thanks to a 3D scanner. This is what allowed us to reconstruct the details of the mask using the imaging method used by the FBI.».
Jesus Christ
The question of the appearance of Jesus Christ has been exciting the minds of people for 2000 years. Since there are no actual remains or DNA samples available, anthropologists are looking for alternative ways to recreate his appearance. For example, Manchester University forensic artist Richard Neave based his depiction of Christ on archaeological evidence and biblical sources. In the Gospel of Matthew, he found confirmation that Jesus' facial features were characteristic of Semites from Galilee at that time. Israeli archaeologists were able to provide Niv with several skulls of Jews - contemporaries of Christ, and three of them underwent computed tomography. From this data, the researchers created a 3D digital reconstruction of the face and then a template of the skull.
Neve analyzed all available descriptions of Jesus from biblical sources and 1st century drawings found by archaeologists. Thus, questions about the eye color, hair length, skin color, height and physique of Christ were resolved. The portrait, modeled by programmers based on Niv data in 2002, turned out to be strikingly different from known images of Jesus and caused outrage among believers. In response, Neve stated that he had only recreated the appearance of an adult man who lived in the same place and at the same time as Jesus.
Another source for reconstructing the appearance of Christ is the Shroud of Turin. It is believed that this Christian relic, which is kept in the Cathedral of St. John the Baptist in Turin, captures the original face of the Savior. According to beliefs, it was in this cloth that the body of Jesus was wrapped after suffering torture and death. The first attempt to create a 3D reconstruction based on a print from the shroud was made by the American John Jackson in 1976: he analyzed the face on the canvas using a microdensitometer (a device that measures the degree of darkening of the image) and then reconstructed the three-dimensional shape of the body using computer programs for processing aerial photographs .
In 2010, American artists from Studio Macbeth tried to recreate the appearance of Christ from the shroud for the documentary “The Real Face of Jesus” on The History Channel. Using modern 3D technologies, specialists led by Ray Downing transformed the image obtained from the shroud from two-dimensional to three-dimensional. It also turned out to be different from the canonical images of Christ. This became a reason for the indignation of many, as did the very fact of using a print from the Shroud of Turin for reconstruction, the authenticity of which many doubt.
An explanation of the reasons and the corresponding discussion can be found on the page Wikipedia: To be deleted/January 15, 2018. |
History of the method
In the second half of the 19th century, a number of sites of primitive man (Neanderthals, Cro-Magnons and others) with skeletal remains were discovered. This prompted scientists to look for ways to restore the appearance of ancient people. In 1877, the German anatomist Schaafhausen made the first attempt to reproduce the external appearance of a person from Paleolithic skulls. A few years later, the Swiss scientist Kolman, together with the sculptor Bechli, developed a special method of research and creation of reconstructions based on these data. They did not set themselves the task of portrait facial restoration, believing that it was hardly feasible [ ] .
- Skull analysis
- Graphic reconstruction
- Sculptural reproduction of the head diagram. The main muscles are restored on the original skull, and ridges of thickness are applied, which subsequently ensure an objective construction of the portrait.
- Completion of work on the bust, taking into account historical data (costume, hairstyle).
When creating portraits, the threat of some distortion of the resulting image as a result of subsequent stages of work is insignificant, since when determining a hairstyle, the most striking ethnic features are always taken into account, and clothing is reproduced according to archaeological data. Therefore, the portrait can be supplemented with images of hairstyles, clothes and jewelry, if the information about them is sufficiently reliable. Reproduction of the external appearance of a face based on the skull can be realized both in the form of a sculptural image and in the form of a graphic image.
Skull analysis
Facial reconstruction by Alberto di Trento. Arc-Team company and 3D artist Cicero Moraes.
At the stage skull analysis basic craniometric measurements are performed.
Anthropocraniometric data [ ] :
Then a craniometric passport of the skull is drawn up, which indicates the marks on the skull, a brief description, storage location, responsible person, condition of the skull (integrity is determined by type: cranium- a whole skull with lower jaw, calvarium- skull without lower jaw, calva- skull cap), data on excavations or location, etc.
Using special schemes, the age of the skull is determined - by the number of teeth, the degree of their abrasion, the order of eruption, overgrowth of dental sockets, smoothing and thinning of the alveolar processes, the degree of obliteration (overgrowth) of bone sutures, etc. The sex of the skull is determined based on the topography of the skull and statistical data (usually This is the easiest part of the first stage).
Graphic reconstruction
At the stage graphic reconstruction the skull is photographed in the main projections (but the profile is the most informative) using a cube-(cube-) craniophore; a profile of the skull is constructed from a photograph or using a diagraph. On the diagram of the skull, the dentition (if necessary), the lower jaw (if absent), the temporal and masticatory muscles, the eyeball, lips, according to the bite, and the nose are reconstructed. It is known that if we continue the direction of the subnasal spine and the direction of the nasal bones, then at the place of their intersection there will be a tip of the soft nose. And if you mirror the profile of the pear-shaped aperture, relatively straight, drawn from the end of the nasal bones to the tip of the subnasal spine, you can get an approximate contour of the soft nose [ ] .
Using these and many other anthropological techniques, from the works of Gerasimov and Lebedinskaya, you can obtain an absolutely accurate contour of the nose. The thickness of the skin is selected individually for each skull, based on the tables compiled by Gerasimov. Depending on gender, age, race, looseness of the compact bone substance (an indication of obesity), or cribra orbitalia- mottled bone substance on the inner upper surface of the orbits (a sign of starvation and anemia), minor defects and facial features are reconstructed.
Sculptural reconstruction
The most interesting and most time-consuming stage sculptural reconstruction. According to the table of integument thicknesses and correlations of Gerasimov, with the help of a caliper, sculptural plasticine and the thinnest blade, beacon posts of the appropriate height with a thickness of about 5 mm are obtained, which are placed at the main points corresponding to the measurements of M. M. Gerasimov. After all the beacons are placed at all craniometric points, they are connected along the profile and the Frankfurt horizontal line by ridges made of the same plasticine so as not to damage the heights of the beacons. Therefore, the height of the ridge between beacons of different heights should be uneven, and at one end it should be equal to the nearest beacon, and at the other it should increase relative to the other beacon.
After which two main lines are fully formed - the frontal line and the line of the Frankfurt section, which is the equator of the skull and runs along the lower edge of the orbit to the upper edge of the ear opening. The gaps between the ridges are filled with wax or the same plasticine. In accordance with individual anatomical features, the eyeballs are modeled, the eye shape is calculated, and the eyelids are modeled.
Ear placement is performed as follows. It is known that the length of a straight line drawn from the glabella, that is, the point lying in the middle between the eyebrows, to the subnasal spine, is equal to the length of the ear (max.). The upper contour of the ear is equal in shape and position to the suture of the temporal bone, to which the temporal muscle is attached. The height and contour are set, then the ear is modeled.
If necessary, teeth are prosthetized or imitated to accurately determine the bite. The profile of the nose is cut out of plasticine according to the finished graphic reconstruction and the nose is reconstructed. Lips are modeled using graphic reconstruction data performed on a natural scale. Subsequently, the resulting image is processed artistically, taking into account gender, age, racial and ethnic characteristics.
Computer technicians
The computer is easy to use, but computer reconstructions are extremely inaccurate [ ] . All results obtained by such methods are approximate and standardized within the standard laid down in the program. On the contrary, when working directly with the skull, maximum accuracy in selecting tissue thickness for a given relief is achieved. An anthropologist can reconstruct fine details such as wrinkles and small facial defects that a computer cannot reproduce. This accuracy is especially important in forensic analysis. And only through direct work with the skull, with its individual relief, does this become possible.
A person is able to see in each individual skull a unique unique pattern of relief, microrelief, and is able to distinguish the degree of looseness of the bone compact, the severity of certain of its fragments. Based on these and similar, at first glance insignificant, features of the skull, maximum resemblance to the original is achieved. Wrinkles, plumpness, fullness, fat folds and swellings, minor defects, the position of the eyebrows and the shape of the lips - all this and much more can be reconstructed only when working with the skull, without the use of a computer.
13. Facial reconstruction based on the skull
The main task of facial reconstruction from the skull is to obtain diagnostic data on the signs of the external appearance of the deceased (deceased) in cases of discovery of putrefactively altered and skeletalized corpses of unknown citizens. Facial reconstruction based on the skull is performed only if there is no version about the identity of the alleged deceased.
The main goal of reconstructing the external appearance from the skull is to convey typical, group and some individualizing characteristics of the external appearance in the image of a person’s face. As a result of the study of the skull and skeletal bones, data is obtained on gender, age, racial type (within large races), condition of the dental apparatus, congenital and acquired pathological changes and individual characteristics.
To restore the appearance in forensic practice, two methods are mainly used: graphic reconstruction (making a hand-drawn portrait) and the combined graphic method (CGM) - making a portrait using standard drawings of external elements on transparent films using “IKR” type devices and additional drawing individual characteristics of the deceased's face. Recently, computer technology has been used to select the necessary elements of a person.
Facial reconstruction based on the skull is carried out by specialists from the ECC of the Ministry of Internal Affairs of Russia, as well as forensic experts from the physical and technical departments of a number of regional (territorial) bureaus of forensic medical examination of the Ministry of Health of Russia, who have undergone special training on the basis of the ECC of the Ministry of Internal Affairs of Russia.
In 1993-1995 It is planned to create in the Ministry of Internal Affairs, the Internal Affairs Directorate, and the Internal Affairs Directorate an expert service for forensic support for identification work with unidentified corpses.
Issues to be resolved during facial reconstruction based on the skull:
What is the gender, age and racial type of the deceased(s)?
Are there signs of diseases, intravital injuries, or traces of medical intervention on the presented skull?
What are the characteristics of the dental apparatus (indicating the patients who underwent treatment, prosthetics, intravital teeth removed and other features)?
What were the signs of the deceased’s appearance and the individualizing features of his appearance?
The results of the work are documented with a research certificate and photographs (negatives) of the restored appearance. In addition, criminal investigation officers are provided with a draft orientation indicating all objectively established characteristics with an assessment of the possibility of their use for search and identification. Proportional features of the face and head are reliably displayed in the reconstruction; shape and size of forehead, nose;
position of the palpebral fissures; lower part of the face and some other signs.
The overall fullness of the face, eyes and eyelids, as well as lips are approximately restored. Conventionally, the hairline, the general tone of the hair, the structure of the ears, folds and wrinkles, and the expression of the eyes are depicted.
The reliability of the reconstructed signs largely depends on the completeness of the information obtained during the initial examination and examination of the corpse and its remains.
That is why it is so important to carefully examine the corpse at the place of its discovery, record (photograph in detail, describe) and remove remnants of clothing, hair, beard, mustache, teeth, dentures, ears, etc. and send for research.
For. for the reconstruction of a face based on the skull, the following materials are presented to the expert:
the skull, including the lower jaw, as well as all teeth and dentures found at the scene of the discovery of the corpse;
hair samples from the head (at least 50 hairs indicating the area of the head);
copies of the inspection report of the place where the corpse was found, forensic medical examination reports;
photographs taken at the discovery site and in the morgue, showing the particularities of the condition of the corpse and its parts;
photographs and descriptions of headdress, glasses, clothing of the upper body.
The skull must be processed by maceration, degreased and dried. This work is carried out on a one-time written order in the forensic morgue.
If a person is identified among the missing citizens who has a portrait resemblance to the restored appearance and the coincidence of a number of other objective information, an examination is carried out in the ECC of the Ministry of Internal Affairs of Russia, on the basis of the investigator’s resolution, in order to identify the person. In the event that a criminal case has not been initiated regarding the discovery of a corpse, this work can be carried out outside the procedural framework and its results are documented in the form of a research certificate.
To perform an identification examination, it is necessary to collect the following data about the missing person:
detailed personal data - last name, first name, patronymic, date and place of birth, nationality, place of residence, “information about the circumstances of the disappearance;
anthropological data - height, constitution, color of eyes, hair, skin, sizes of headdress, outer dress and shoes;
multi-angle authentic lifetime photographs of recent years. Photographs that display individualizing features (teeth, damage, etc.) are of great value for identification;
original medical documents - medical histories, outpatient and dental records, radiographs and descriptions of the results of fluoroscopic examinations, information about blood (tissue) group.
For the expert's permission, the question is asked: “Did the skull belong to the unidentified corpse discovered.
. . , citizen X, whose photographs (x-rays, etc.) were submitted for research?”
An expert opinion on identification of a person from the skull and bone remains of an unidentified corpse, on the one hand, and photographs and various medical documents of a specific missing person, on the other, is the result of a comparative analysis of all available objective data.
The conclusion can be categorical positive, categorical negative and probabilistic (intermediate), when ( photo-compositing), and based on the use of computer and television equipment (tele-compositing). In the latter case, high-quality printouts of images made on a laser printer are presented as illustrations.
LITERATURE
Identification from a skeletonized corpse: Information letter from the Prosecutor's Office and the Ministry of Internal Affairs of the USSR. - 1977.
Reconstruction of a face from the skull in forensics / B. A. Fedosyutkin, O. P. Korovyanekny, L. L. Usachova, etc. - M.: All-Russian Research Institute of the Ministry of Internal Affairs: USSR, 1990.
Mikhail Mikhailovich Gerasimov was born in St. Petersburg, but soon moved with his parents to Irkutsk. At the age of 11, he participated in archaeological excavations for the first time in his life, and at 18, he published his first scientific article. Gerasimov became acquainted with anatomy, as well as archeology, very early.
He gradually accumulated anatomical knowledge and in 1927 made the first reconstructions from the skulls of Pithecanthropus and Neanderthal. He apparently did not know about the skeptical attitude of most scientists towards methods of facial reconstruction from the skull, and therefore he worked with enthusiasm.
But the first large-scale experiment to test the method created by Gerasimov was carried out only in 1940–1941. The scientist (by this time he was again living in St. Petersburg) received a parcel from Moscow with the skull of the deceased, photographs of which were kept in a safe in Moscow. Of course, Gerasimov had never seen either the man himself or his image before. In total, twelve reconstructions were carried out using the skulls of Russians, Ukrainians, Poles and Chinese. A special commission consisting of scientists and criminologists assessed the results of the work. There were no methods to establish facial identity at that time, so reconstructions were assessed “by eye.” In all twelve cases, a portrait resemblance was established.
Who's the last to see the anthropologist?
In the summer of 1941, Gerasimov took part in an expedition to the tomb of Timur Tamerlane (1336–1405) and the Timurids in Gur-Emir. The expedition confirmed the legend about Timur's lameness, and Gerasimov worked with the commander's skull. The reconstruction of Timur's face, which Gerasimov performed when he was already a recognized scientist, was not his first historical work. Before this, he had already restored the faces of Yaroslav the Wise (c. 978–1054) and Andrei Bogolyubsky (c. 1111–1174). Among his subsequent works are busts of the German poet Schiller (Friedrich Schiller, 1759–1805) and the Persian Rudaki (c. 860–941), the leader of the highlanders Hadji Murad (late 1790s - 1852) and the Russian admiral, later canonized, Fyodor Ushakov ( 1745–1817). In 1950, the Laboratory of Anthropological Reconstruction was opened at the Institute of Ethnography of the USSR Academy of Sciences (nowadays), the director of which Gerasimov remained until his death.
The most mature and famous work of the anthropologist is considered to be the reconstruction of the face of Ivan the Terrible (1530–1584), carried out in 1964. When preparing for such an important task, the anthropologist did not collect data on the appearance of Ivan IV as a matter of principle, so as not to feel pressure from them in the process of work. Even modern scientists note that the resulting image of a courageous and strong-willed ruler is most likely as close as possible to the real one. Gerasimov never reconstructed historical figures on his own initiative, since he considered himself, first of all, a specialist in the Paleolithic. He always preferred working with the skulls of Stone Age people or ancestors, although reliable data on the structure of their soft tissues of the head is impossible to obtain to this day.
I sculpt from plasticine...
Since the time of Gerasimov, methods for reconstructing the face from the skull have remained virtually unchanged. First, the skull itself is processed - if necessary, its physical damage is eliminated. Then it is outlined, measured in detail and described; if the skull is rare, a cast is taken from it. Then the gender and age of the reconstruction object are determined. Age, as a rule, is determined by the degree of wear of the teeth and healing of the sutures on the skull, and gender - by the degree of smoothness and development of the relief of the skull.
Knowledge of age and gender is necessary to apply the appropriate value from the thickness scale, developed based on the study of the thickness of the soft tissues of the face. According to these values, the general profile of the face is determined and special beacons are used. After this, the restorer begins to sculpt the masticatory and temporal muscles from hard plasticine, which determine the outline of the face, that is, its shape and proportions. The reference point for this is the relief of the skull at the origin and insertion of the muscles. The next step is to apply a grid of ridges to the surface of the skull, which show the thickness of the tissues in each area of the face in accordance with the already mentioned thickness scale. The spaces between the ridges are filled and thus the surface of the face is formed.
After this, you need to model the mouth and nose. These are the most difficult moments of reconstruction and the most vulnerable points in Gerasimov’s position, which were most often criticized. He guessed that data on the structure of the mouth and nose could also be “read” from the skull, but he had a very rough idea about this. Gerasimova’s student Galina Vyacheslavovna Lebedinskaya worked a lot on the problem of nose restoration. Using radiographs, she was able to find out that the structure of the nose is determined by the edges of the pear-shaped opening of the skull, the bones located next to it, in particular the tray shift. The mouth is one big muscle, which, of course, disappears. Despite this, the outline of the mouth can be determined by the place of its attachment to the skull, the width - by the structural features of the teeth and jaws, and the height of the colored part of the lips - by the height of the enamel of the incisors.
The eyes are not only a mirror of the soul, but also a very important detail of a person’s appearance. When restoring them, up to twenty-two signs are used. Among them are the interocular distances, the structure of the nasal bones at the root of the nose, and the height, width and depth of the orbit, the structure of its edges. But the most difficult thing is with the ears. From the skull you can determine the degree of their protrusion and approximate size. The anthropologist produces a so-called “clean portrait”. Subsequently, the resulting sculpture is “combed” and “dressed”. Gerasimov insisted that the anthropologist must be as impartial as possible, so the resulting face must be devoid of emotion.
Hi-Tech for the skull
For a long time, the thickness scale was determined largely on cadaveric material. This was the source of many errors: after all, within a few hours after death, the soft tissues of the head begin to deform and shift relative to the bone base. However, in the 1970s, specialists from the Laboratory of Anthropological Reconstruction first used the location method using ultrasound. Reflection of a directed beam of ultrasound beams allows you to most accurately determine the thickness of soft tissues in the most “informative” points of the face. In 1988–1992, the laboratory conducted large-scale studies throughout the USSR, which made it possible to create the most complete database to date on the thickness of the soft tissues of the face.
The tables used by scientists in Europe are much poorer. In addition, the reconstruction process itself is excessively computerized. A scientist, as a rule, deals not with the skull itself, but with its image - a digital model obtained as a result of scanning. Facial tissue extensions are carried out purely virtually. The current head of the Laboratory of Anthropological Reconstruction, Tatyana Balueva, believes that this harms the result. In her opinion, there is no computer program yet that can fully reflect the entire individuality of each skull. In addition, some nuances of the work could not be formalized; the intuition of an anthropologist is required.
Polovtsian from Kvashnikovo. XII - XIII centuries
Reconstruction of G.V. Lebedinskaya, created in 1989.
Cumans (Cumans) are a Turkic-speaking group of steppe nomads, known from the 11th to the 13th centuries. Their original homeland is the steppes between the Ob and Irtysh rivers. By the middle of the 11th century, they conquered almost the entire territory of modern Kazakhstan, crossed the Volga and appeared in the southern Russian steppes, pushing back the Pechenegs. The Polovtsians repeatedly attacked Russian lands, but sometimes acted as allies of Russian princes. In 1223, during the first Tatar-Mongol raid, they defended together with the Russians on the Kalka River and were defeated. As a result of the Tatar-Mongol conquest, part of the Cumans joined the Golden Horde, and the other part moved to Hungary.
The burial near the village of Kvashnikovo (Saratov region) was discovered by accident, when a ravine was washed out. Excavations were carried out in 1959 by employees of the Saratov Museum of Local Lore. The grave contained the skeleton of a man buried with a horse. An iron helmet covered with a bronze sheet on top has been preserved. The top of the helmet was decorated with bronze gilded plates, forming a rosette, in the center of which there was a hole from a small rod that had once been there. The remains of a chain mail net found along with the helmet are very close to ancient Russian products of this kind. The remaining items (stirrups, bits, buckles, saddle trim) are typical of late burials of steppe nomads of the lower Volga region and the European southeast. They allow us to date the burial to the 12th-13th centuries. In the restored face of this man, a combination of Caucasoid (medium-wide face, strongly protruding straight nose with a small hump) and Mongoloid (flattened upper part of the face, high cheekbones, slightly swollen upper eyelid crease) features are noticeable. This mestizo anthropological type is characteristic of many peoples of southern Siberia and Altai.
Rudaki is a Tajik poet. X century.
Reconstruction of M.M. Gerasimova, created in 1957.
Abu-Abdullo Jafar Rudaki (mid-860s - 941) is the founder of classical Tajik-Persian poetry. Born in the village of Panjrud. According to legend, he was blind from birth. He became famous as a singer, musician and poet. He was close to the court of the rulers of Bukhara, but towards the end of his life he fell out of favor and died in his homeland in poverty. Only a small part of his poems has reached us.
In 1956 M.M. Gerasimov was offered to find the grave and create a sculptural portrait of Rudaki. There was practically no information about the poet’s life, and Gerasimov decided to study his poems as a biographical source. An analysis of the early poems showed that they contain many colorful descriptions, while in later poems there are no visual images. This means he became blind already in adulthood. In “Ode on Old Age” there are the words: “All my teeth crumbled and fell out.” Gerasimov formulated ten conditions, if they met, the remains could be considered to belong to the poet. Then he went to the village of Panjrud, where in the old cemetery he found the remains of a mazar and a grave with a male skeleton. Everything indicated that this was indeed Rudaki’s grave. The skull had no teeth. The skeleton belonged to a man 75-78 years old. Judging by the shape of the cervical vertebrae, he kept his head thrown back, as the blind walk. When studying the orbits, atrophy of their upper edge and the orbital nerve was discovered, but the eyeball was not destroyed. This suggests that he was blinded when he was about 60 years old. Traces of healed rib fractures were found on the skeleton.
During the reconstruction, the scientist recreated the upper torso. By anthropological type, he is Caucasian, a typical representative of mountain Tajiks. To make the absence of teeth visible, he is shown as if uttering a guttural sound. Old people in mountain villages do not trim their beards, so he was given a rather long and thick beard. He is dressed in a simple shirt and a rough woolen robe, as he spent the last years of his life in poverty. As someone who visited Mecca, Rudaki had the right to wear a turban.
Skilur is the king of the Scythians. 2nd century BC
Reconstruction of M.M. Gerasimov, created in 1946.
Scythians are steppe nomads, known since the 7th century. BC. to the 4th century AD and occupied the territory from Central Asia to the Danube. The center of the Scythian power was the steppes of the Black Sea region, where the “royal Scythians” lived, known for their rich burials in mounds with horses, weapons and a lot of gold and silver jewelry in a special “animal” style. At the end of the 3rd century BC. Under the pressure of the Sarmatians, the Scythians retreated to the Crimea, where, not far from Simferopol, they founded a new capital - Scythian Neapolis. The Scythian kingdom in Crimea reached its peak in the 2nd-1st centuries BC.
During excavations in Scythian Neapolis, the base of a tower was discovered, which served as a mausoleum for the burials of the Scythian nobility. Among them, a tomb made of white limestone slabs stood out, which contained the richest and most ancient burial. Along with the skeleton of a man, over eight hundred gold clothing ornaments and expensive weapons were found there - two swords with gold and silver handles and a bronze helmet with silver inlay. At the hip was a quiver decorated with gold plates. It was clear that this was the burial of a noble Scythian, possibly a king. It dates back to the 2nd century BC.
The study of the remains showed that they belonged to a strong, strong man of the Caucasian anthropological type. The skull is long, massive, with an artificial deformation of the arch. The face is beautiful, with regular features. The nose is strongly protruding, narrow, with a slight hump. The age of the deceased is no more than 40-45 years.
But Skilur with his son Palak on the relief
When, to make the reconstruction of the unknown warrior more authentic, he was given a Scythian hairstyle with long hair and a beard, a clear portrait resemblance to King Skilur depicted on coins and bas-reliefs was revealed. The characteristic deformation of the head is clearly visible in the images. The royal Scythians bandaged the head of babies so that it acquired an elongated, “aristocratic” shape. According to historical information, Skilur died in a battle with the troops of King Mithridates of Pontus.
Sarmatian from the Staro-Lybaevsky burial ground.
Reconstruction of T.S. Balueva, created in 2000.
The Sarmatians are an Iranian-speaking group of steppe nomads known since the 7th century BC. to the 4th century AD, related to the Scythians of the Black Sea region and the Sakas of Central Asia. Their ancestral home is the southern Urals and western Kazakhstan. At the turn of the 3rd and 2nd centuries BC. The Sarmatians defeated the Scythians and moved west, occupying the territory from Tobol to the Danube. Monuments of Sarmatian culture are burial mounds with rich grave goods. Some of them are in no way inferior to the Scythian ones in their grandeur and wealth. The bronze and gold jewelry found in them was made in the Scythian-Sarmatian “animal” style. The Sarmatians retained elements of matriarchy for a long time. Women participated in military campaigns and often occupied a dominant position in society. Rich burials of female leaders in full military armor are known.
The Staro-Lybaevsky burial mound is located in the forest-steppe 75 km south of Tyumen (Western Siberia). Excavations were carried out in 1998-2001 by archaeologists from the Institute of Problems of Northern Development of the Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences. The mounds have a diameter of up to 30 m. In addition to single burials, collective burials of men and women with military weapons were also found. Skeletons of horses and fragments of horse harness were found in the mounds near human burials. Many graves have been looted since ancient times.
The reconstruction of a 30-40-year-old man was made based on the remains from a burial in mound No. 33. His anthropological type is Caucasian, with a possible slight Mongoloid admixture, short-headed and broad-faced, with a slightly flattened face, but with a high bridge of the nose and a strongly protruding nose.
The grave contained horn guards for a bow, a quiver, arrows with bone and iron tips, and fragments of an iron dagger. Undoubtedly, the person buried was a warrior. Therefore, in the reconstruction he is shown wearing a leather helmet and a shell made of bone plates, fragments of which were found in a burial from a neighboring mound. Time of burial - 1st century AD.
Timur (Tamerlane) - medieval conqueror. XIV century.
Reconstruction of M.M. Gerasimov, created in 1941.
Timur (1336 - 1405) - an outstanding commander and conqueror, creator of a huge state with its capital in Samarkand. He came from the Turkic-Mongolian family of Barlas. As a result of his conquests, his power included Central Asia, Transcaucasia, Persia and Punjab. He made military campaigns in India, Turkey, Mesopotamia, Egypt, and defeated the Golden Horde. He died during a trip to China. His remains rest in Samarkand in the Gur-Emir mausoleum, a wonderful monument of medieval architecture. In addition to Timur, his two sons, Shahrukh and Mironshah, and two grandsons, Muhamad-Sultan and Ulugbek, are buried there.
In June 1941, the Timurid tomb was opened. Timur's tomb was in the center. The remains found there belonged to a man of strong build and tall for a Mongol. The skeleton revealed pathological changes in the elbow and knee joints. The remains of red hair with gray streaks were preserved on the skull. This confirms that the remains belong to Timur. According to contemporaries, he had a red beard, was tall and very strong. After the wounds, he became lame in his right leg and withered. His nickname Timur-leng (Tamerlane) is translated as “lame Timur.” He walked with a heavy lean on his feet, but was a tireless rider. The right arm stopped bending at the elbow, but remained strong and mobile at the shoulder. This allowed Timur to wield a saber perfectly. According to his anthropological type, he was a typical Mongol, with a high-cheekbone, sedentary face. The left shoulder was noticeably higher than the right, but this did not affect the proud carriage of the head. The remaining hair made it possible to restore the shape of the eyebrows, mustache and beard. He had a long, Mongolian-style mustache of chestnut color. The small red beard with gray streaks had a wedge shape. Although Timur died at the age of seventy, he was a man full of strength and energy. The costume and headdress were created based on an analysis of miniatures and objects from the Timurid era.
Kushan queen. Reconstruction of T.S. Balueva,
established in 1986.
In 1978, during excavations of an ancient burial ground on the Tillya-Tepe (“Golden Hill”) hill in Northern Afghanistan, six rich, possibly royal burials were found. In this territory, after the collapse of the huge empire of Alexander the Great in the 3rd century BC. The Greco-Bactrian state arose. In the 1st century BC. it was conquered by the steppe nomads-Kushans. The nomads, having settled down, adopted many elements of Bactrian culture and created the vast Kushan kingdom, which lasted about five hundred years. Twenty thousand gold jewelry was discovered in the burials. Among them are imported items from Greece, Rome, India, China and jewelry from local Bactrian craftsmen. In one of the six burials of the Tillya-Tepe necropolis, a woman lay in a wooden coffin, buried with unusual pomp. Her belonging to the ruling elite is evidenced by a golden openwork crown, decorated with pearls and turquoise, and a golden scepter. Gold-woven funeral robes were richly decorated. The long dress was embroidered with pearls and hundreds of gem-encrusted gold plaques. The dress was decorated with a golden figurine of a winged goddess, reminiscent of the Greek Aphrodite. Over the dress the deceased was wearing a long robe with gold clasps. Openwork gold pendants were decorated with the image of the eastern goddess of wildlife. Two mirrors and a wicker basket with perfume and cosmetics were found next to the buried woman. A silver coin was clutched in his hand, and a gold coin behind his cheek, symbolizing the payment to Charon for crossing into the kingdom of the dead. This corresponds to ancient Greek funeral rites. This woman undoubtedly occupied the top level in that layer of nomadic aliens who began to rule Bactria at the turn of our era. In the reconstruction she is shown without a golden crown and almost without jewelry. Her skull has a characteristic deformation, giving her head an elongated shape.
Khan Mahmud (early 1420s - early 1460s).
Reconstruction by T.S. Balueva, created in 1994.
Khan Mahmud (early 1420s - early 1460s) came from a dynasty of direct descendants of Genghis Khan. His father, Khan of the Golden Horde Olug-Muhammad, did not rule for long, was overthrown and fled. In 1439, Olug-Muhammad raided Moscow, but the Muscovites withstood the siege and fought back. Mahmud also took part in this campaign as a young man. In the summer of 1445, the Horde, under the command of the sons of Olug-Muhammad Mahmud and Yakub, defeated the army of Grand Duke Vasily II near Suzdal, captured him and released him only after paying a ransom. That same autumn, Mahmud captured the capital of Volga Bulgaria, the city of Kazan, and founded the Kazan Khanate. Fearing his relatives who were fighting for power in the Golden Horde, Mahmud restored peaceful relations with the Moscow state. The dates of his life are unknown, but according to chronicles he died in the early 1460s at the age of about 40.
In 1977, during excavations in the Kazan Kremlin, the foundations of two white stone mausoleums with the remains of rich burials were discovered. They were located on the territory of the khan's residence and most likely were the tombs of khans and members of their families. In one of them, dating back to the 15th century, there was the burial of a man 35-40 years old. The deceased was a clear representative of the Central Asian variant of the Mongoloid anthropological type. A face with massive cheekbones, a narrow eye shape with an overhanging crease of the eyelid, a straight, slightly protruding nose. The structural features of the bones of the arms and the occipital part of the skull indicate long-term physical exertion that occurs during horseback riding: a straightened back with shoulders pulled back and a slightly thrown back head. A number of signs indicate seasonality in the diet, characteristic of nomadic life. A thorough analysis allowed us to conclude that the buried person was the founder of the Kazan Khanate, Khan Mahmud.
Muhammad-Emin - Khan of Kazan. XVI century.
Reconstruction by T.S. Balueva, created in 1995.
Muhammad-Emin (1468 - 1518) - grandson of Khan Mahmud, son of Khan Ibrahim and princess Nur-Soltan. After the death of his father, his elder brother Ilgam became khan, and ten-year-old Muhammad-Emin was sent to Moscow, where he was raised at the court of Grand Duke Ivan III. In 1487, as a result of the military campaign of Russian troops and the establishment of a Moscow protectorate over the Kazan Khanate, he was placed on the throne. According to the chronicles, during his reign from 1487 to 1496, he proved himself to be a “true friend of Russia.” He is known not only as a politician and ruler of Kazan, but also as a wonderful poet, whose works have survived in fragments to this day. He was overthrown by Khan Mamuk from the Shaybanid dynasty. In 1502 he was again placed on the throne by the Moscow governors and reigned until his death in 1518. According to chronicle sources, in the last years of his life he was seriously ill, died at the age of fifty and was buried “in the Bulgarian city of Kazan.”
The skeleton of a man from the second mausoleum in the Kazan Kremlin, early 16th century, belongs to a man 45-50 years old, which corresponds to the age of Muhammad-Emin. A study of the skeleton showed that he had osteochondrosis of the thoracic spine; this disease caused acute pain when moving. Changes in the shape of the back of the head and other bones were revealed, indicating long-term stress of a professional rider. According to anthropological characteristics, it belongs to the Central Asian variant of the Mongoloid type. Noteworthy is the great individual similarity between those buried in the two mausoleums, Muhammad-Emin and Mahmud. This is quite natural, since they are relatives. They were Mongols, direct descendants of Genghis Khan, and in appearance they were sharply different from the rest of the population of Volga Bulgaria and the Kazan Khanate that arose on its territory. The local population had a Caucasoid appearance with a small Mongoloid admixture.
Reconstruction of the appearance of the ancient peoples of Siberia and Kazakhstan
Throughout the history of mankind, the composition of the population of various territories changed at different times, migrations during which the incoming population mixed with the earlier one or displaced it, led to changes of the anthropological type, changed the appearance of man and adaptation to natural conditions. In an article by employees of the "Gerasimov" Laboratory of Anthropological Reconstruction of the IEA RAS, the change over several thousand years in the anthropological type of the population of two territories - the steppes of Kazakhstan and the Urals - is studied. Southern Siberia on the one hand and the Chukotka coast on the other, numerous sculptural reconstructions illustrate both the gradual growth of the Mongoloid racial component in the population of Kazakhstan, and significantly smaller changes in the anthropological type of the population of the Chukotka coast, which arose, rather, as a result of adaptation to the natural environment. The work was first published in the final volume of the program of the Presidium of the Russian Academy of Sciences "Adaptation of peoples and cultures to changes in the natural environment, social and technogenic transformations" published in 2009 by the publishing house ROSSPEN under the stamp of the IEA RAS.
Balueva T. S., Veselovskaya E. V., Grigorieva O. M., Pestryakov A. P.
FORMATION AND DYNAMICS OF THE POPULATION OF SIBERIA AND KAZAKHSTAN
Rice. 1. Sculptural reconstruction based on the skull of a man from the Koskuduk burial ground, Western Kazakhstan (Chalcolithic, 2nd half of 4 thousand BC)
Rice. 2. Sculptural reconstruction based on the skull of a man from the Protoka burial ground, South Western Siberia (Neolithic)
Author of the reconstruction: T.S. Balueva
Rice. 3. Sculptural reconstruction based on the skull of a man from the Gumarovsky mounds, Southern Urals, (Scythian period. 7th century BC)
Author of the reconstruction: T.S. Balueva
Rice. 4. Sculptural reconstruction based on the skull of a man from the Chilikty burial ground, Eastern Kazakhstan (Saki, 6-5 century BC)
Authors of the reconstruction: T.S. Balueva, E.V. Veselovskaya
Rice. 5. Sculptural reconstruction based on the skull of a man from the Berel burial ground, Northeast Kazakhstan (Scythian time: 7th-3rd centuries BC)
Author of the reconstruction: E.V. Veselovskaya
Rice. 6. Sculptural reconstruction based on the skull of a man from the Filippovsky burial mounds, Southern Urals (Sarmatians, 5th-4th centuries BC)
Author of the reconstruction: T.S. Balueva
Paleo-reconstruction experience
The first experience of such paleoreconstruction was carried out on a control craniological sample of representatives of the Arctic race from the territory of the Far East at the turn of our era (Ekven burial ground). The sample consisted of male and female skulls. For each skull, an individual verbal portrait was compiled using the craniofacial correspondence method and graphic reconstructions were performed. Based on generalized verbal portraits and averaged dimensional characteristics obtained during paleoreconstruction, a comparison was made of the reconstructed population with the modern Eskimo population of the same territory in terms of anthropometry and anthroposcopy of a living face. The chronological variability of physical appearance is traced on the basis of a study of the genealogical continuity of the studied groups.
Rice. 7. Sculptural reconstruction based on the skull of a woman from the Ekven burial ground, Chukotka (ancient Eskimos, late 1st millennium BC - early 1st millennium AD)
Author of the reconstruction: T.S. Balueva
The population that left the Ekven burial ground had sufficient uniformity in the shape of the head as a whole and in the structure of individual elements of the face. Many of these features are typical of the Eskimos (Figure 7). These include the keeled shape of the head; tall, pentagonoid in full face, fairly wide face; weak horizontal profile of the face, long and narrow nose, noticeable prognathism, low and narrow forehead; large zygomatic and mandibular diameters. The complex of these features is perhaps the most stable over time and can be traced to the present day.
In general, modern Eskimos are more graceful than the ancient Eskimos of the Ekven burial ground. The analysis reveals that the differences in many dimensional characteristics are not accidental. It should be noted, for example, a significant shift in the size of the nose. Modern Eskimos have a wider nose. At the same time, the morphological height of the face remained the same. Thus, there was a change in the distribution of facial height across floors. In the harsh conditions of the North, any change goes through strict selection. There are known correlations between the nasal index and the average annual air temperature and air humidity, i.e., the size of the nose reflects adaptation to climate conditions.
It is interesting that most racial diagnostic characteristics have not changed over the past two millennia. It can be assumed that by the time the Ekven burial ground was formed, a stable set of traits distinguishing this group had already been formed and established in the genotype. By choosing the most favorable places for hunting, ancient populations ensured a long-term stable existence in one territory. Due to the specific nature of the marine hunting industry, Eskimo villages existed for many centuries. And as a result of this, it is impossible to exclude the influence of adaptive processes on the formation of the modern anthropological type of Eskimos.
Rice. 9. Sculptural reconstruction based on the skull of a woman from the Filippovsky burial mounds, Southern Urals (Sarmatians, 5th-4th centuries BC)
Author of the reconstruction: T.S. Balueva
The reasons for the epochal variability lie in strong mixing with the coastal Chukchi, without excluding the influence of adaptation. Historical data indicate that the Chukchi largely adopted their culture from the Eskimos and existed for a long time in territories overlapping with them.
Rice. 10. Sculptural reconstruction based on the skull of a woman from the Isakovka burial ground, South Western Siberia (Sargat culture, 3rd-4th century AD)
Author of the reconstruction: T.S. Balueva
The analysis of variability was based on craniological materials from a large number of burial grounds in the study area. A list of them is given below.
Neolithic: Koskuduk burial grounds (Western Kazakhstan); Channel and Sopka (south of Western Siberia).
Bronze: Ikpen-I (Fedorovskaya k-ra, XV-XIV centuries BC, Kazakhstan), Kara-Tumsuk (Alakul k-ra, Kazakhstan, XV centuries BC).
Rice. eleven.
Early Iron: (Scythian time) (VII-III centuries BC). Burial grounds: Gumarovsky (Southern Urals), Akalakha, Berel, Tar-Asu (Pazyryk mounds of Altai), Mayemer (Western Kazakhstan), Kudaikol-1 (Tasmolinskaya k-ra, 7th-3rd centuries BC, Pavlodar region, North-Eastern Kazakhstan), Kegen (VII century BC - III century AD, Southern Kazakhstan), Maibulak (Saki, VII-III centuries AD, Kazakhstan). Gunnosarmatian time (last centuries BC - first centuries AD), burial grounds: Filippovsky burial mounds (Southern Urals), Isakovka, Kokonovka, Strizhevo (Omsk Irtysh region, III-IV centuries, Sargat culture), Starolybaevsky (Tyumen region), Altyn-Asar (Aral region), Tompak-Asar (Aral region), Lebedevka (5th century BC, Kazakhstan, Ural region), Sarlytam (Western Kazakhstan, Mangyshlak), Sary-Kamys (Western Kazakhstan ), Tanabergen-II (Sauromatian region, 7th-3rd centuries, Western Kazakhstan), Ilekshar (Sarmatians, 2nd century BC and Savromats, 7th-3rd centuries, Aktobe region, Western Kazakhstan; Teren (sanctuary) (III century BC, Western Kazakhstan, Mangistau region), Dikiltas (Aktobe region, Western Kazakhstan), Kegen (III-VI centuries AD, Southern Kazakhstan), Karaagash (Xiongnu , Central Kazakhstan, III-VI centuries), Bien-I (Usuni, II century BC - IV century AD, Kazakhstan).
Rice. 12. Sculptural reconstruction based on the skull of a woman from the Altyn-Asar burial ground, Aral Sea region (late 1st millennium BC - 1st millennium AD)
Author of the reconstruction: O.M. Grigorieva
Early Middle Ages (Turkic times). Burial grounds: Kokmardan (Kangyuy, II century BC - VIII century AD, Southern Kazakhstan), Borizhar (Turkic, V-VIII centuries, Chimkent region, Southern Kazakhstan), Birsky (Bakhmutinskaya k- ra, VII-VIII centuries AD, Northwestern Bashkiria).
Advanced Middle Ages. Burial grounds: Timber plant (Kimak time, 9th-11th centuries, Northern Kazakhstan),
Rice. 13. Sculptural reconstruction based on the skull of a woman from the Sary-Kamys burial ground, Western Kazakhstan (Hunnic time: 3rd-5th centuries AD)
Author of the reconstruction: E.V. Veselovskaya
Talgar (XI-XII centuries, Karluks, Taldy-Kurgan region, Eastern Kazakhstan), Kopa (Kipchaks, XII-XIII centuries AD, Kazakhstan), Baganat (Kipchaks, Petropavlovsk region, XII-XIII centuries. AD, Kazakhstan), Baykara (Mongols, XIII century, Northern Kazakhstan, Petropavlovsk region), Saray-Berke (Golden Horde), Zhaman-Kargala-I (Golden Horde, XII-XIV centuries, Western Kazakhstan, Aktobe region), Sandy Island (Golden Horde, late XIV - early XV centuries AD, Kazan).
Rice. 14. Sculptural reconstruction based on the skull of a man from the Karakystak burial ground, Western Kazakhstan (Turkic time: 5-8 centuries AD)Author of the reconstruction: T.S. Balueva, E.V. Veselovskaya
Based on the comprehensive analysis of all the material, including the study of the variability of growth processes of the skull, in geographical and chronological aspects, the following conclusions can be drawn. In the Neolithic in Siberia and Kazakhstan, the population was characterized by relative heterogeneity within a large Caucasoid trunk. Anthropological complexes characteristic of the modern population of Siberia and Kazakhstan have not yet formed (cemeteries Protoka, Sopka, Koskuduk) (Fig. 1, 2).
In all subsequent studied chronological periods in the steppe region, tribes of nomadic pastoralists dominated economically, whose representatives are characterized exclusively by Caucasian racial traits with significant vertical and horizontal profiling (Gumarovsky mounds, Akalakha, Sopka, Mayemer, etc.) (Fig. 3 ). In the southeastern part of Kazakhstan, a significant admixture of the gracile Mediterranean type is recorded, for example, materials from the Kudaikol-I and Kegen, Chilikty burial grounds (Fig. 4). Only in some of the easternmost regions of the studied region is a small Mongoloid admixture recorded among the population.
Rice. 15. Sculptural reconstruction based on the skull of a woman from the Bozok burial ground, Northern Kazakhstan (Turkic time: 5-8 centuries AD)
In the northeast of Kazakhstan, the predominant component of the anthropological appearance is a morphotype with a mixed expression of Caucasoid and Mongoloid features, determined by the combination of a large height and width of the face with a strong protrusion of the nose (cemeteries Berel, Tar-Asu, Kyrgauldy, etc.) (Fig. 5 ).
The population of the Sarmatian and Hunnic times (last centuries BC - first centuries AD) is also distinguished by the decisive predominance of the Caucasoid anthropological type with a specific morphological complex characterized by a matured, wide and somewhat flattened face, a protruding nose, mesobrachycrania, relatively low-arched, large in absolute size skull (monuments Filippovsky Kurgans, Altyn-Asar, Starolybaevsky, Isakovka, Kokonovka, Lebedevka, etc.) (Fig. 6,9-10). During the same Hunno-Sarmatian time, the custom of artificial deformation of the skull was recorded to a noticeable extent (cemeteries Tompak-Asar, Altyn-Asar, etc.) (Fig. 11, 12), giving the appearance a unique originality.
In Hunnic times, populations with noticeable Mongoloid racial features penetrated into the territory of Kazakhstan - a flattened face, a less protruding nose, a developed fold of the upper eyelid (cemeteries Sarlytam, Tanabergen, Dikiltas, Strizhevo, Sary-Kamys, Kegen) (Fig. 13).
Rice. 16. Sculptural reconstruction based on the skull of the Kazakh biy Aiteke Bi Baybekuly
Authors of the reconstruction: T.S. Balueva, E.V. Veselovskaya
The early Middle Ages are characterized by the appearance and spread of the ancient Turks in the study area (Kongyuy, Borizhar, Bien, Karakystak, etc.) (Fig. 14). And at this time, Caucasians also predominated in the steppe, but some Mongoloid features were already clearly visible. For example, the population that left the Lesozavod burial ground in Central Kazakhstan (Kimak time - 9th-11th centuries) is characterized by large skull sizes with low heights, a very wide and high face with its rather strong flattening in the nasomalar region. The population that left the burial grounds of Talgar, Bozok and some others (Eastern Kazakhstan) had similar features (Fig. 15).
The population looked completely different in the late Middle Ages. It acquires a stable Caucasoid-Mongoloid appearance with a weakly profiled face and a fairly pronounced development of the fold of the upper eyelid (Fig. 16).
Rice. 17. Sculptural reconstruction based on the skull of the Kazakh warrior Kobylanda
Authors of the reconstruction: T.S. Balueva, E.V. Veselovskaya
In general, the population of the studied chronological period from the Neolithic to the developed Middle Ages is characterized by a steady increase in the Mongoloid racial component against the background of a generally Caucasian population. As a result, the bulk of the population takes on the appearance of the Ural and South Siberian contact, Caucasoid-Mongoloid race (Podchegan, Talgar, Baganaty, Shiderty, Kopa, Zhaman-Kargala, etc.) (Fig. 17).
The original methods used made it possible to obtain new specific characteristics of the studied populations that cannot be obtained using traditional anthropological research. A new gallery of graphic and sculptural portraits was also created, illustrating the change in anthropological types in space and time.
We bring to your attention a selection of classic reconstructions made in the famous Laboratory of Anthropological Reconstruction of the Institute of Ethnology and Anthropology of the Russian Academy of Sciences (we are talking about the same one laboratory organized by M.M. Gerasimov in 1950). The level of this work is still a reference. Photos were kindly provided by the head of the laboratory, Tatyana Sergeevna Balueva, especially for the Anthropogenesis.RU portal.
“However, it should be noted that we deliberately avoid depicting any emotions in the reconstructions; we reproduce only what can be seen on the skull. You can get so carried away by “creating an image” that the physical features of the face are simply lost, that is, the artists deliberately " distort" - increasing or decreasing - one or another facial feature for greater expressiveness. For us, each skull is strictly individual, and the method of reproducing appearance features from bone structures is accurate and verified to the smallest detail... We are not artists, the result of our work is sculptural or a graphic portrait is not a work of art. That is why reconstruction of a face from the skull is widely used in judicial practice"... (From an article by T.S. Balueva).
Australopithecus afarensis
Location: Hadar
Skeleton: AL 288-1 "Lucy"
Dating: 3.2 million years ago n. 
Australopithecus afarensis
Location: Hadar
Skull: AL 444-2 + lower jaw AL 444-2b
Dating: 3.0 million years ago n.
Authors: T.S. Balueva, E.V. Veselovskaya
(photos 1 and 2 - reconstruction without hair;
published for the first time).
Australopithecus africanus
Location: Sterkfontein
Skull: Plesianthrope 5
Dating: 2.5 million years ago n.
Homo habilis
Location: Olduvai
Skull: OH 24
Dating: 1.8 million years ago n.
Homo rudolfensis
Location: Koobi Fora
Skull: KNM-ER 1470
Dating: 2.03 million years ago n.
Photo published for the first time
Homo ergaster
Location: Koobi Fora
Skull: KNM ER 3733
Dating: 1.7 million years ago n. 
Homo erectus
Location: Sangiran
Skull: Sangiran 17
Dating: 1 million years ago n. 
Sinanthropus / Homo erectus
Location: Zhoukoudian (China)
Dating: 400 thousand years ago n. 
Homo heidelbergensis
Location: Broken Hill (Kabwe)
Skull: Broken Hill 1
Dating: 130-300 thousand years ago n. 
Homo heidelbergensis (female)
From the victim of a recent crime to an ancient Neanderthal, the overall shape of the skull and the subtle details of its structure can say a lot about the lifetime appearance of its owner. In the 30s of the last century, this work was put on the rails of precise scientific substantiation and began to be used in criminology, archeology, and anthropology - both in Russia and abroad.
Thanks to this, we can quite accurately imagine what our prehistoric ancestors and significant historical figures looked like, such as Ivan the Terrible and Tamerlane, Yaroslav the Wise and the Cro-Magnons who lived near modern Vladimir.
The scientific foundations of the method were laid by the great Soviet researcher Mikhail Gerasimov, the continuity of whose school continues to this day. We spoke with a representative of the “third generation” of reconstruction specialists, Ravil Galeev, an employee of the plastic reconstruction laboratory of the Institute of Ethnology and Anthropology of the Russian Academy of Sciences.
Where are techniques for reconstructing a face from the skull more often used: in historical anthropology or in criminology?
Of course, in criminology, although the technique was originally created by anthropologists, and even from criminology it is gradually being replaced by genetic approaches.
The key figure here is Mikhail Mikhailovich Gerasimov, who was the first to provide a fairly rigorous scientific basis for this work. They had tried to reconstruct the face from the skull many times before, but Gerasimov was the first to make the method accurate and confirm that it really works. And after Gerasimov, the method diverged into two slightly different directions: one - forensic, the other - restoration of the appearance of historical figures.
Until now, everyone in Russia who is involved in reconstructing the appearance of the skull is in one way or another connected with Gerasimov. All his famous students and followers founded their own schools - Galina Vyacheslavovna Lebedinskaya, Elizaveta Valentinovna Veselovskaya, and Sergei Alekseevich Nikitin, who today is the main specialist in the field of forensic reconstruction. However, he also works in the field of historical reconstruction - among his most famous works are the restoration of the appearance of the “Kremlin wives”, Moscow queens and grand duchesses, whose remains are kept in the Archangel Cathedral - Sofia Palaeologus, Elena Glinskaya, Irina Godunova, etc. .
How reliable are these methods? Is a face reconstructed from a skull accurate and reliable enough for a person to be identified?
In general, of course, it works. But identification is a complex thing and depends on many factors. It can be mentioned that the older a person is, the more difficult it is to reconstruct his appearance. The aging process is accompanied by subsidence, sagging of soft tissues, and the accumulation of wrinkles - these changes are quite difficult to predict and determine based on the structural features of the skull. But the younger the person, the easier this work is.
Sculptural portrait of Tsar Ivan the Terrible. Photo: Mikhail Uspensky / RIA Novosti
It is interesting that, according to the observation of the same Sergei Nikitin, the best identification of the reconstructed appearance is carried out by distant relatives who remember the statics of the face. We remember a loved one in many details: how he smiles and laughs, how he eats, how his eyes change in one mood or another, how he squints, but we, as a rule, do not notice his face as such. The only exceptions are people who “deal with” persons professionally: artists, anthropologists, photographers, etc. Therefore, close relatives recognize a face by reconstruction worse than distant relatives.
However, in real practice, forensic identification is most often made by the operatives themselves, comparing an identikit prepared based on the reconstruction of the face of an unidentified skull with photographs from the file cabinet of people declared missing.
It is worth saying that there are “complex” and “simple” skulls. If a person has quite pronounced individual characteristics - a crooked nose, an asymmetrical face, a broken jaw, lack of visible teeth, a high forehead, etc. - identifying him will be quite simple. But there are also faces that seem to resemble everyone at the same time, faces that are ordinary and unmemorable - and then restoration and subsequent identification can be very difficult.
- How does reconstructive work for forensic science differ from working with historical figures?
The first stages are exactly the same in both cases, but in the case of historical figures everything must end with a very complex and lengthy stage of stylizing the appearance. For example, the face of Ilya Muromets, whose restoration was carried out by Sergei Nikitin, needs to be included in the historical context, to make an object suitable for the end user of the information - not an operative conducting an identification, but a historian, an ordinary person who will consider the reconstruction in a more general context.
In a museum, no one is interested in looking at an identikit, so the reconstructed historical character must have all the appropriate “accessories” of his historical era - beard, clothes, jewelry, etc. He must be alive, and this is perhaps the main difficulty of historical reconstruction. This work is in many ways the work of a sculptor, although it is done by the same people who carry out facial restoration.
How long does the whole process take? After all, if facial reconstruction is constantly required in forensic science, such work should be put on stream and done as quickly as possible...
In forensic science, the end result does not require plastic, sculptural reconstruction. All that is required here is a graphic image that can be drawn either by hand or using specialized programs - by the way, which grew out of programs for 3D character modeling for animation. For an experienced specialist, this work can take from one to five days.
If we are talking about another direction, about the restoration of historical figures - as Gerasimov did with Tamerlane or Ivan the Terrible - if plastic reconstruction is required, then the process can last for a month, a year, or even longer. This is creative work, and it is very difficult to predict its completion date. A lot of time can be spent on restoration and preparation of the skull, reconstruction of missing parts.
You said that facial skin changes with age, the formation of wrinkles, etc. creates serious difficulties during reconstruction. Do they not have any effect on the fine structure of the bones of the skull?
Unfortunately no. Many people accumulate wrinkles due to personal habits - for example, squinting due to myopia - or occupational characteristics. For example, in people with “speech” occupations (speakers, teachers, translators), the skin around the lips changes. A person’s ethnicity also makes a big contribution to these processes. Thus, among some Central Asian peoples, the formation of wrinkles is particularly intense, while among the residents of Vietnam, on the contrary, the skin retains its elasticity longer.
In general, in people of different anthropological types, the aging process occurs at different rates, which is reflected differently on the face. The skin sagging, bags appear, the tip of the nose droops and becomes sharper - all this has to be carefully predicted on the skull, taking into account many aspects. Therefore, our work is often something like plastic surgery in reverse: they remove wrinkles, and we add them.
- One gets the impression that such work is more art than science...
The first part is pure science. This is Gerasimov’s method, this is the imposition of points, measurements, certification. Everything is done strictly according to the methodology. The second part, the sculptural one, is indeed art in some way, but art within certain limits. Let's say you add wrinkles, determine the shape of the nose, the openness of the eyes - here you largely need to feel the object. At the same time, you cannot go beyond certain average values, which are determined by the same original skull and our scientific knowledge of the subject.
These are small creative manipulations that allow you to bring your face to life without going beyond accurate information. However, this applies only to historical reconstruction, while forensic reconstruction remains a completely accurate and verified procedure. In it, any creativity and “revival” is unnecessary and even somewhat harmful; It is better to make the face static to facilitate identification.
Restoring the external appearance of a person from bone remains. Bureau of Forensic Medical Examination of the Main Directorate of Healthcare of Moscow. Photo: Sergey Subbotin / RIA Novosti
Since Gerasimov’s name has come up again, to what extent is his original technique used today? How has it improved with the advent of new knowledge and tools?
It is clear that a lot of time passed from the moment when Gerasimov laid the scientific foundations - and he worked in the middle of the twentieth century, and the methodology was improved in many ways. But its basis remains the same.
Gerasimov set the basis; over the years of work, he found out the variability in the distribution of skin thickness in different parts of the head and determined the directions for further searches. But even after him, a lot of work was done - Gerasimov did some things on a whim, and subsequently they were scientifically substantiated by his students. Important issues regarding skin thickness were clarified by Lebedinskaya and her student Veselovskaya, Nikitin did a lot of work on methods of nose restoration... Abroad, they went their own way in these matters.
In general, Western researchers use the earlier Gerasimov technique: benchmarks are placed on the skull, on which the thickness of the skin corresponding to a particular part is marked, and only then modeling material is applied. We act differently, applying a modeling mesh of plasticine ridges of a given thickness, and in addition, we do not model muscles that do not have attachments to the skull - this is done in Europe and the USA. I don’t quite understand why: this only introduces additional uncertainty and inaccuracy into the modeling.
Very noticeable progress has occurred due to the advent of ultrasound scanning and tomography technologies. The need for a complex, time-consuming and not the most pleasant preparation procedure has almost disappeared. Today it is difficult to imagine how much work was done by Gerasimov, who did it with his own hands, with a scalpel and a surgical saw, in morgues. After all, after death, soft tissues quickly change, and it was necessary to dissect fairly fresh corpses - and for Gerasimov, like for any normal person, this was very difficult.
On the other hand, in my experience, in this area, analog data is always better than digital data - it is always better to “see everything with your hands.” After all, one heart operation gives doctors more practical knowledge and experience than studying dozens of 3D models of this organ. “Digital”, of course, makes many things easier, but “manual labor” also retains enormous value.
Yes, computer programs are appearing, but there is no one into which you can simply load skull measurement data and get a ready-made facial reconstruction as a result. After all, the data we operate with is never absolute. All possible sizes, thicknesses are certain variations, from such and such to such and such, and which parameter to choose in this case can so far only be determined by the knowledge and experience of a specialist.
Due to the emergence of new technologies, will the method lose its relevance? You mentioned that it is being replaced from forensic science by DNA analysis techniques - won’t the scope of application of the method be reduced to just historical reconstruction?..
In our country, genetic methods in forensic science are just beginning to enter full-fledged practice. After all, they need an extensive and complete DNA database, but it has not yet been collected. So you can take genetic material from the remains - but what do you do with it then? There is nothing to compare with. This is where reconstruction can come in handy. It allows you to narrow the search range, say, from tens of thousands to just dozens - and then move on to genetic methods. Displacement is happening, but quite slowly, and it is unlikely to happen in the near future.
- In general, how many specialists in Russia are professionally involved in the reconstruction of faces from the skull?
I think there are several dozen representatives of our Gerasimov school, working in different laboratories and groups. But in general, almost any forensic medical center has such a specialist on staff.
Sculptural portraits of a boy from the Crimean Peninsula (left) and a Neanderthal man (right) who lived about 35 thousand years ago. Photo: Boris Kaufman / RIA Novosti
But what if we are talking about restoring the appearance of Neanderthals, Australopithecines and others?.. We don’t have any direct data about their soft tissues at all - how is their reconstruction carried out?
Indeed, this is a very difficult question. All the data we can operate with relates only to our species, Homo sapiens. For obvious reasons, no one has ever carried out a vivisection of Homo neanderthalensis, who became extinct tens of thousands of years ago, and when it comes to reconstructing their appearance from the skull, we are first of all forced to start from information concerning our species and other great apes.
On the other hand, working with Neanderthals is easier in its own way. They say that for a European, all Chinese are alike. The same is true here: we cannot restore the appearance of a Neanderthal exactly as it was during life. But 90 percent of the reconstruction will be correct - and if you saw a living Neanderthal, then, knowing our reconstruction, you would understand that this is a Neanderthal.
Maybe we are missing some personal features, but all the main features are conveyed quite accurately. The absence of a chin protrusion, strongly pronounced brow ridges, powerful cheekbones and lower jaw, a chignon-shaped back of the head, a low sloping forehead - these elements are quite enough to see the real appearance. The skull sets the basic proportions of the face, that’s enough.
Let's take a look at the problem of reconstructing the appearance a little more broadly - not only at restoring the face from the skull, but also restoring other parts from the skeleton. How different or similar are these two problems?
With the body, in my opinion, everything is much simpler. The body is quite accurately defined by the skeleton: the neck is determined by the sternocleidomastoid muscle, and it is determined by the corresponding places of attachment; Shoulder width - collarbones and humerus. The same Mikhail Gerasimov, restoring the appearance of Ivan the Terrible, also assembled the bones of the skeleton, including the collarbones, shoulder girdle, specific barrel-shaped chest, etc.
With the skull and face, everything is actually much more difficult. Here, with the same confidence and speed, we can highlight only some areas. For example, the upper part and forehead, the contour of the head and the oval of the face - it’s hard to go wrong here. The bridge of the nose, nasolabial fold, chin and everything located under the lower lip, the height and width of the lips themselves are also quite easily restored based on the characteristics of the skull.
But the lower part of the nose and eyes are of greater complexity: their size, section, depth - all this can be reconstructed with great difficulty. The ears are restored largely according to portrait canons, placing them in the places of the ear openings on the skull and taking dimensions known to painters - the height of the ear coincides with the height of the nose.
- Please tell us about the most interesting reconstructions in which you had the opportunity to participate.
I, of course, have a lot of experience, but I wouldn’t undertake to work on famous historical characters myself, for this you already need to be a major expert. Perhaps very interesting was the reconstruction of a man from the early Mesolithic era, whose remains were discovered in a burial ground on Bolshoy Oleny Island in the Murmansk region. A lot of interesting work was done in preparing an extensive album on the history of Irkutsk, for which we restored the appearance of the first settlers.
Further, in the section on February 12, 1942, the ZIS-3 divisional gun was adopted. Designer Vasily Grabin managed to create a weapon that became the most popular in the history of world artillery