HOUSINGS AND SETTLEMENTS The type of housing buildings in Tavrika was influenced by whole line factors. These include natural and climatic conditions, the availability of materials for construction, and the traditions of the peoples living on the peninsula. Most often, wild stone, clay and

Help with questions on biology =) please. Who built the first hearths and dwellings and where? and got the best answer

Answer from Nadezhda Chernousova[newbie]
The first monumental stone structures in Europe, created in the middle of the second... The main place in the yurt was occupied by the hearth. Taking a closer look, you understand... As we see, every nation built houses from the material at hand. ..
Construction is one of the most ancient types human activity, which means that many millennia ago the foundations for all further development of architecture were laid.
The prehistoric period is usually divided into the following main stages: Old Stone Age - Paleolithic, New Stone Age - Neolithic, Bronze and Iron Ages. At the same time, it is very difficult to clearly define their boundaries, since the development of human society has always been uneven.
The surviving remains of human settlements indicate the existence of different ways of life of people in different areas globe and at different stages of human history. In the Neolithic, dwellings were already built from wood, reeds, twigs and clay. At the same time, buildings on stilts and so-called communal houses are being erected in other places (this type of dwelling, “pueblo,” existed among the American Indians until recently).
In northern Italy, settlements were discovered (approximately 1800 BC) of a peculiar nature: circular platforms were built on pillars, on which huts were located. A wooden fence was erected around the village and a ditch was dug and filled with water.
Ancient fortified settlements dating back to the seventh-sixth millennium BC have been discovered in Anatolia. e. (Ch'atal Huyzek, Mersin, Hasilar).
Only starting from the half of the third millennium BC. e. Neolithic culture from the Aegean region spreads to the northern and Western Europe along natural routes - the Danube with its basin and the Mediterranean Sea.
The first monumental stone structures in Europe, created in the middle of the second millennium BC. e. (Spain, France, northern Europe and Ireland), called menhirs, dolmens and cromlechs.
Menhirs are vertically placed, usually uncut stones of considerable height, often forming long rows (the "alley" of menhirs in Brittany).
A dolmen usually consists of two large vertical stones standing side by side, on which a roughly processed stone block is placed (Denmark, Brittany). They are often arranged to create long, corridor-like spaces.
Vertical stones installed in a circle, connected to each other by stone blocks also placed on them, are called cromlechs. An outstanding structure of this kind is Stonehenge near Salisbury in southern England. This is a complex consisting of massive four- and eight-meter stones, placed vertically and forming a centric composition. The structure apparently appeared in the middle of the second millennium BC. e. The stone blocks are carefully processed with stone tools, which indicates the skill and significant level of development of the people of that time, and their sense of spatial composition. The composition of the Stonehenge cromlech also observed certain laws related to astronomy, which, however, was often found in the architecture of ancient centuries (Egypt, Central America).

There was upright walking, an increase in the volume of the brain and the complication of its organization, development of the hand, and an extension of the period of growth and development. A developed hand with a well-defined grasping function allowed a person to successfully use and then make tools. This gave him advantages in the field, although in terms of his purely physical qualities he was significantly inferior to animals. The most important milestone in human development was the acquisition of the ability to first use and maintain, and then produce fire. The complex activity of making tools, making and maintaining fire could not be achieved by innate behavior, but required individual behavior. Therefore, the need arose to significantly expand the possibility of exchanging signals and a speech factor appeared, which fundamentally distinguishes humans from other animals. The emergence of new functions, in turn, contributes to accelerated development. Thus, the use of hands for hunting and protection and feeding on food softened on fire made the presence of powerful jaws unnecessary, which made it possible to increase the volume of the brain part of the skull due to its facial part and provide further development human mental abilities. The emergence of speech contributed to the development of a more advanced structure of society, the division of responsibilities between its members, which also provided advantages in the struggle for existence. Thus, the factors of anthropogenesis can be divided into biological and social.

Biological factors - hereditary variability, as well as the mutation process, isolation - apply to. Under their influence, in the process of biological evolution, morphological changes occurred in the ape-like ancestor - anthropomorphosis. The decisive step on the path from ape to man was upright walking. This led to the release of the hand from the functions of movement. The hand begins to be used to perform various functions - grasping, holding, throwing.

No less important prerequisites for anthropogenesis were the biological features of human ancestors: a herd lifestyle, an increase in brain volume in relation to the general proportions of the body, binocular vision.

Social factors of anthropogenesis include work activity, social lifestyle, development of speech and thinking. Social factors began to play a leading role in anthropogenesis. However, the life of each individual is subject to biological laws: mutations remain as a source of variability, stabilizing selection acts, eliminating sharp deviations from the norm.

Factors of anthropogenesis

1) Biological

natural selection amid the struggle for existence
genetic drift
insulation
hereditary variability
2) Social

public life
consciousness
speech
work activity
In the first stages of human evolution, biological factors played a dominant role, and in the last stages, social factors. Labor, speech, and consciousness are closely connected with each other. In the process of labor, there was a unification of members of society and the rapid development of a method of communication between them, which is speech.

The common ancestors of humans and apes - small arboreal insectivorous placental mammals - lived in the Mesozoic. In the Paleogene of the Cenozoic era, a branch separated from them, leading to the ancestors of modern apes - Parapithecus.

Parapithecus Dryopithecus Pithecanthropus Sinanthropus Neanderthal Cro-Magnon modern man.

Analysis of paleontological finds allows us to highlight the main stages and directions historical development humans and apes. Modern science gives the following answer: humans and modern apes had a common ancestor. Further, their development followed the path of divergence (divergence of characteristics, accumulation of differences) in connection with specific and different conditions of existence.

Human ancestry

Insectivorous mammals Parapithecus:

Propliopithecus, Orangutan
Dryopithecus Chimpanzees, Australopithecus Ancient people (Pithecanthropus, Sinanthropus, Heidelberg man) Ancient people (Neanderthals) New people (Cro-Magnon man, modern man
We emphasize that the human pedigree presented above is hypothetical. Let us also recall that if the name of the ancestral form ends in “pithecus”, then we're talking about about still a monkey. If at the end of the name there is “anthrop”, then we have a person in front of us. True, this does not mean that his biological organization necessarily lacks the characteristics of a monkey. It is necessary to understand that the characteristics of a person prevail in this case. From the name “pithecanthropus” it follows that this organism exhibits a combination of characteristics of a monkey and a human, and in approximately equal proportions. Let's give brief description some of the supposed ancestral forms of man.

Dryopithecus

Lived approximately 25 million years ago.

Characteristic features of development:

significantly smaller than a person (height about 110 cm);
led a predominantly arboreal lifestyle;
probably manipulated objects;
there are no tools.
Australopithecus

Lived approximately 9 million years ago

Characteristic features of development:

height 150–155 cm, weight up to 70 kg;
skull volume – about 600 cm3;
probably used objects as tools for obtaining food and protection;
characterized by upright posture;
jaws are more massive than those of humans;
highly developed brow ridges;
joint hunting, herd lifestyle;
often ate the remains of predators' prey
Pithecanthropus

Lived approximately 1 million years ago

Characteristic features of development:

height 165–170 cm;
brain volume about 1100 cm3;
constant upright posture; speech formation;
mastery of fire
SYNATHROP

Lived probably 1–2 million years ago

Characteristic features of development:

height about 150 cm;
upright walking;
production of primitive stone tools;
maintaining fire;
social lifestyle; cannibalism
NEANDERTHAL

Lived 200–500 thousand years ago

Characteristic features:

Biological:

height 165–170 cm;
brain volume 1200–1400 cm3;
lower limbs are shorter than those of modern humans;
the femur is strongly curved;
low sloping forehead;
highly developed brow ridges
Social:

lived in groups of 50–100 individuals;
used fire;
made various tools;
built hearths and dwellings;
carried out the first burials of their fallen brothers;
speech is probably more advanced than that of Pithecanthropus;
perhaps the emergence of the first religious ideas; skilled hunters;
cannibalism persisted
CRO-MANNON

Lived 30–40 thousand years ago

Characteristic features:

Biological:

height up to 180 cm;
brain volume about 1600 cm3;
there is no continuous supraorbital ridge;
dense build;
developed muscles
Social:

lived in a tribal community;
built settlements;
made complex tools from bone and stone;
knew how to grind and drill;
deliberately buried his dead brothers;
rudimentary religious ideas appear;
developed articulate speech;
wore clothes made of skins;
purposeful transfer of experience to descendants;
sacrificed oneself for the sake of the tribe or family;
treated the elderly with care;
the emergence of art;
domestication of animals;
first steps of farming
MODERN MAN

Currently lives on all continents

Characteristic features:

Biological:

height 160–190 cm;
brain volume about 1600 cm3;
presence of different races
Social:

complex tools;
high achievements in science, technology, art, education

What was housing like at the dawn of civilization, how has it changed over time, and where does architecture come from? Let's try to look into history.

Once upon a time, a person protected himself from bad weather and other external influences with the help of improvised means and materials. As he developed, he stopped being content with what was at hand and began to purposefully create an environment for his life. Ancient dwellings, as a rule, were short-lived, and not a trace remains of many of them. Most information about them must be gleaned from the works of archaeologists and ethnographers, based on the remains of primitive housing found.
With the beginning of migration from tropical to subtropical zones, it was necessary to learn how to build shelters to protect against temperature changes. The first such settlement occurred 400–300 thousand years ago.
Then, when the population began to grow and natural resources began to deplete, people began to follow the nomadic herds of animals further north - into temperate zones. Huts and huts no longer protected from bad weather; we had to look for new shelters: under rock overhangs, in grottoes and caves (Fig. 1). Traces of such settlements were found in Spain, France, the Caucasus, and China. Already in those days, people tried to arrange their life: they laid stone slabs on the floor, made partitions, and created structures from the bones of large animals.

The Neolithic era is often called the “Neolithic revolution”, since it was during this period that a giant leap in human evolution took place. People took up farming and cattle breeding, switched to a sedentary lifestyle, improving housing and creating settlements, and then cities. Those who continued to lead a nomadic lifestyle began a long process of developing the design of a mobile home: a tent, a wagon, a yurt, a tent.
The origins of architecture date back to Neolithic times. Then monumental structures began to be erected from huge blocks of stone - megaliths (Fig. 2): menhirs - free-standing stones with traces of processing, cromlechs - circles of several stones and dolmens - structures made of slabs raised on stone supports. It is believed that dolmens are associated with a funerary cult, but the purpose of most of the megalithic monuments that have come down to us is unknown.
It is generally accepted that the first permanent man-made dwelling arose in the Mesolithic era, a couple of millennia before the Neolithic, in Palestine, in the Wadi en-Natuf valley. There, near a naturally formed cave, the Natufians hollowed out a round depression about a meter deep in the limestone rock and covered it with a permanent, albeit short-lived, tent made of skins. Another thousand years later - in Jericho, they began to cover the semi-dugout with a frame woven from willow, coated with clay and painted from the inside in light colors. Several centuries later, a settlement of such houses began to be enclosed with a wall made of not yet burned, but already carefully molded brick. In the 6th millennium BC. e. On the island of Cyprus, in Kirokitia, the first of the famous two-story houses was built. It is very similar in shape to the Jericho domed house, but is made of stone. Even by modern standards, it was not small: the area of ​​the first floor was 50 m2, the second floor was about 40 m2.
The oldest houses (Fig. 3, 4) in Kirokitia consist of a continuous outer wall-fence, forming a closed circle or oval. For greater stability of the dome, especially with masonry made of mud brick on a weak mortar, it had to be made high, which is why it had a second floor on a beam floor. The beams needed supports - this is how stone pillars appeared. There was a hole at the top of the dome for ventilation.
Round houses were constantly being invented. Even today, when the bulk of the living space is already delineated by four walls, they continue to be built, but from new materials and with a more complex organization of the internal space.
Houses on stilts (Fig. 5) began to be built in the 7th–6th millennium BC. e. in Europe, in the territory of modern Italy, Switzerland and France, they were also common on the African continent. The piles were driven into the bottom of a river or lake near the shore, the ends protruding from the water were connected by transverse bars, and a platform of beams was laid on them. The uneven floor was covered with clay, sand and cobblestones. Then they erected several huts. The villages, raised on stilts above the water, were safe - they were connected to the shore by a bridge that could be easily dismantled. Residents could fish without leaving their homes, and they got to the forest where they hunted, pastures or vegetable gardens on a boat made from part of a large trunk.
Pile villages were also built on land: near the river, this method of construction saved them from floods, and in forest clearings - from enemies. For additional protection, the village was surrounded by a ditch and rampart. The shaft was erected from piles driven in an oblique cross, onto which earth was piled. Long bars were placed against the embankment from the inside, the gaps between them were filled with clay and bundles of brushwood, and a roll of sand and stone was made on top.

The result was a quadrangular fortress. The huts were built on platforms made of straight beams, intertwined with branches or brushwood and coated with raw clay. There were no stoves or chimneys; as before, a fire was lit among the dwellings, the smoke from which came out into a hole made at the top or on the side. The houses were small, 3–4 m wide, and were divided into two halves: livestock were kept in one, people lived in the other.
Apparently, collective housing arose simultaneously with individual housing. On the territory of modern Turkey, in Anatolia, 50 km south of the city of Konya, the remains of the settlement of Çatalhöyük were found. The lower (earliest) layer is dated quite accurately - 7500 BC. e. The village was a single house - a continuous terraced building with an area of ​​13 hectares, where there were no streets or squares. There were not even doors between neighboring houses. Residents got into their apartments through pipes that removed the smoke from the fireplaces, and from terrace to terrace through stairs. This dwelling was practically inaccessible to enemies. A similar house-fortress, Taos Pueblo (Fig. 6), was built by the ancient Indians about a thousand years ago. This closed multi-story structure around a square with blank outer walls that protected residents from attacks by neighboring tribes is still inhabited. It is located in the US state of New Mexico near the modern city of Taos. These are the ancestors of modern high-rise buildings.

In the 1970–1980s, several ancient cities with the same organization were discovered in the Southern Urals, dating back to approximately the 3rd–2nd millennium BC. e. The most famous of them is Arkaim (Fig. 7, 8) in the Chelyabinsk region, a city with a diameter of about 170 m, built in a radial pattern and consists of two ring walls, one inside the other, with a square in the center. Sector-shaped rooms are attached to both walls. The ring walls and the walls of the rooms are made of logs and unfired clay bricks. In essence, the city was a fortress consisting of two “apartment” buildings. The premises were divided into personal and public, residential and workshops: not only pottery and tools were found here, but also anvils and molds for casting metal. The city had a storm sewer with water drainage beyond its boundaries. It is assumed that he was destroyed by fire. When people finally switched to a sedentary lifestyle and acquired a way of life, this marked the beginning of the development of architecture with its various styles and genres, which are widely known today.

Description of the presentation by individual slides:

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Research project. Theme: “The evolution of housing: from past to present.” Completed by: 9th grade student Irina Pavlova

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1 know historical and archaeological data about the history of the emergence of the first human dwellings. 2 draw conclusions about how natural and climatic conditions and human lifestyle are taken into account in architecture. 3 be able to distinguish between types of housing buildings. Goals Objectives. 1 Select and study literature on this topic 2 Study the history of the origin of the home 3 Trace the history of the development of the home to our time

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Stages of work on the project 1 Preparatory stage: - Project planning - Drawing up a project plan - Discussion of sources of information 3 Final stage: Presentation of results. - Report on the work done - Protection of projects - Summing up 2 Main stage. Organizational and research. Searching for material on a topic - collecting and organizing material in accordance with the goals of the work. Organizational and consulting sessions. - Processing materials for the project - Preparation for a presentation on the work done

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Problematic question: How does the architecture of residential buildings of different nations of the world take into account natural and climatic conditions and human lifestyle? Study questions. 1.What is a home? 2. What are houses built from? different parts Sveta? 3 How does climate determine the architecture of a building? 4.Do lifestyle and traditions influence different nations on form, content appearance living space?

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Housing... Each era makes its own demands on it, people never cease to be interested in it. The interest of science in the home of the past remains constant, since much of what is characteristic of it, what was created over the centuries folk wisdom, does not lose its meaning even today. Times passed and people learned to build more reliable homes, adapting them to local climatic conditions. Until our time, many of them, almost unchanged, still serve people faithfully. An interesting fact is that in ancient times, people were closer to nature, as if they “felt” it, so they built their homes taking into account all possible natural disasters. Relevance of the topic

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The reasons for the creation of the dwelling were: -retention and preservation of heat, especially during cold spells associated with icing Northern Hemisphere, -storing collected supplies, -creating family relationships

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People have been using housing since the times of the primitive communal system. Climate change and colder temperatures forced people to increasingly engage in housing construction. Initially, these were various caves, grottoes, dugouts, huts, etc. The type of housing that a person built in ancient times depended almost entirely on the climate in which the person lived. And also from the availability of building materials that he possessed. The working material was trees and animal bones. In the caves primitive I was looking for shelter from bad weather and predatory animals. Excavations speak about this: the ashes of ancient fires were found in the caves, and the walls of the caves, which were painted by the first artists in history, told about this. Dwellings of primitive people

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Early Stone Age dwellings that primitive people could be proud of and call houses, built from mammoth bones, were found in Mezhirichi - on the plains of what is now Ukraine. In 1965, one villager, while digging a cellar hole under the floor of his house, discovered an entire settlement dating back 15 thousand years. Archaeologists have found here four well-preserved dwellings made from mammoth tusks. Inside each there was a fireplace and kitchen utensils. To the greatest ancient dwelling, found in Mezhirichi, contained the bones of about a hundred mammoths.

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Another ancient buildings scientists attribute the area under the hills to the late Neolithic era. In 1850, a fierce storm tore off the top layer of earth from one such hill. Amazed locals saw a dwelling hidden in the hill. Stone masonry walls, miniature beds, low ceilings, doorways. Everything was made for people no taller than a meter. According to legends, the small creatures were both powerful and dangerous. They enchanted people, lured them into their underground dwellings, and when people returned home, it turned out that several years had passed. Dwelling on the shore of Skara Brae

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IGLOO is the winter home of the Eskimos (Greenland, Alaska, the Arctic, Canada. In the north, the Eskimos of Alaska always lacked building materials, but there was a lot of snow. And therefore, the peoples living in extreme latitudes came up with a special domed house, assembled from snow or ice blocks. The igloo is a dome-shaped building with a diameter of 3 - 4 meters and a height of about 2 meters from snow or ice blocks compacted by the wind. All blocks were installed according to special principles; from the outside, to make it stronger, the house could be watered entirely from snow, even instead of glass in the holes. - there are pieces of ice inserted into the windows. The furniture (beds for sleeping) is also made of snow blocks. National species dwellings

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a tent in the form of a truncated cone with a height in the center from 3.5 to 4.7 meters (the peoples of the Far North - Chukchi, Evenks, Koryaks) In modern yarangas of reindeer herders there are several living quarters, a kitchen, a hallway, a central room with an open fireplace in the middle. The frame is assembled from light wooden poles in the shape of a wall slightly inclined inward and a cone or dome above it. The top of the frame is covered with deer or walrus skins. On average, you should spend about 50 skins on a regular-sized yaranga. YARANGA

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a conical hut made of poles, covered with birch bark, felt or reindeer skins (peoples of the North, Siberia, Finno-Ugric, Turkic and Mongolian tribes). The diameter of the tent in the lower part is usually from 3 to 8 meters. The conical frame of the dwelling consists of 30-50 inclined poles. In winter they covered it with skins of deer, wapiti or elk, sewn into panels. In summer, boiled birch bark or bark, sometimes canvas or burlap. The entrance was covered with skins, or with coarse cloth in summer. In the center of the tent there was a hearth, on both sides of the entrance there were places for sleeping: birch bark, mats made of willow twigs and dry grass, and deer skins were placed on top. CHUM National types of housing

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portable frame dwelling with felt covering (peoples of the steppes of Central Asia and Mongolia) Together with the inhabitants grazing their herds, yurts move effortlessly from one pasture to another. A family can assemble or disassemble such a dwelling in about a couple of hours: first they built a frame of poles, which was then covered with special mats - and the house is ready! A small hole was left in the center of the ceiling for draft. In it, nomads find protection from the summer heat, dry winds, rain and winter frosts. YURTA National types of housing

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Residents of hot countries live in houses on stilts. Light bamboo dwellings covered with palm leaves stand so high above the water that they are not afraid of floods and predators. These days, houses like this are rare. They are preserved in Central Africa, New Guinea, and Indonesia.

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Mud hut In the construction of the mud hut, local building materials were used, such as clay, straw, reeds, and wood. The walls of a traditional mud hut consist of a frame (thin tree branches, or even brushwood) or mud bricks and are coated with clay (hence the name).

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RUSSIAN IZBA Huts were most often built from logs of coniferous trees - pine and spruce. The huts were four-walled and five-walled. Layout of the hut for a long time remained unchanged: on one side of the canopy on the other there was a cage. In ancient times, the hut was heated black: the smoke came out through the door or a special window above it. A floor was laid on the side of the stove. The warm hut was also adjacent to utility rooms, which could be accessed without going out into the yard. This feature of the home is due to cold winters

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A person’s home must meet several requirements: it must be comfortable, protected from bad weather, environmentally friendly and economical. Let's try to evaluate from these points of view different types human housing. The information was collected through a student survey and the average score was calculated. Security Ecology Convenience cave 2.3 3.3 1.2 tent 2.2 3.2 2.3 igloo 2.4 3.5 1.9 Russian hut 4.1 3.9 4.1 skyscraper 4.4 3, 1 4.7

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Houses are different, and they are built from different materials, and the shape can also be different. Nowadays, architects create various interesting house designs. For example: Everyone who comes on vacation to Kabardinka or Gelendzhik tries to visit this upside-down house, because it’s not every day you see something like this! BRINGING DOWN THE HOUSE

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CACTUS HOUSE In Rotterdam (Holland), a luxurious snow-white 19-story unusual cactus house was built, which consists of petal plates located on top of each other. The architects chose this color to reduce heating of the building in hot weather. It received its name due to its resemblance to a thorny plant due to the layout of open terrace-balconies for gardening. BASKET HOUSE The Basket House in the American state of Ohio is the largest monument to a wicker basket ever created. This structure, as tall as a seven-story building, is a magnificent sight.

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HOUSE ON A ROCK (MALAYSIA) This house can only be reached from a nearby cliff, where a cable car was built specifically for this purpose. In France, in the town of Le Pian Medoc, there is an unusual house. It is built at a height and around a tree, which is its center!

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There are many sayings and proverbs about home. My home is my fortress. Being a guest is good, but being at home is better. The hut is not red in its corners, but the pie is red. Don't wash dirty linen in public. Where you were born is where you came in handy. The house will find something to do. The house is good, but the owner is not suitable. The walls and houses help. It is not a person’s house that paints, but the owner of the house. A person needs a home, a roof over his head, warmth, comfort, but, in my opinion, the most important thing, and this is what we saw and heard in Russian proverbs and sayings, is for friendly, friendly relationships to develop in the house, the family that lives in this house, there was love, mutual understanding, caring for one’s neighbor.