Formation of authorities Russian state. Under Ivan III, a centralized administrative apparatus began to take shape. Boyars the Moscow sovereign are the princes of the annexed lands. Counties- these are principalities that were ruled by governors from Moscow. Feeders- these are governors who received for the management of counties feed- part of the tax, the amount of which was determined by the previous payment for military service. Localism- this is the right to occupy a particular position in the state, depending on the nobility and official position of the ancestors, their services to the Moscow Grand Duke.

Boyar Duma.

Boyar Duma It consisted of 5-12 boyars and no more 12 roundabouts(boyars and okolnichy are the two highest ranks in the state). The Boyar Duma had advisory functions on the “affairs of the land.” From the middle of the 15th century. Local princes from the annexed lands also sat in the Duma, recognizing the seniority of Moscow.

Future order system grew out of two national departments: the Palace and the Treasury. The palace ruled the lands of the Grand Duke. The treasury was in charge of finances, the state seal, and the archives.

At the Moscow court, during the reign of Ivan III, a magnificent and solemn ceremonial. Contemporaries associated its appearance with the marriage in 1472 of Ivan III to a Byzantine princess Zoe(Sophia) Paleologus - daughter of the brother of the last emperor of Byzantium Konstantin Paleologos.

Code of law of Ivan Sh.

IN 1497 a new set of laws of the Russian state was adopted - Code of Law of Ivan III. The code of law included 68 articles and reflected the strengthening role of the central government in the state structure and legal proceedings of the country.

Reasons for creating a law book . The era of Ivan III was marked by the overcoming of feudal fragmentation and the creation of a Moscow centralized state. The strengthening of the power of the Grand Duke, the growing influence of the boyars, and the emergence of a centralized state administration apparatus necessitated the adoption of a new legal act.

For example, Article 57 limited the right of a peasant transition from one feudal lord to another to a certain period for the entire country: a week before and a week after the autumn St. George's Day(November 26). The peasant had to pay for care " elderly " - payment for the years lived in the old place. Limiting the peasant transition was the first step towards establishing serfdom in the country. However, until the end of the 16th century. peasants retained the right to move from one landowner to another.

Russian Church under Ivan III

After the election of Bishop Jonah of Ryazan as metropolitan in 1448, the Russian Church became independent (autocephalous). While in the western lands of Rus'. included in Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Russia, Kyiv had its own metropolitan installed. The Russian Orthodox Church split into two independent metropolitanates - Moscow and Kyiv. Their unification will occur after the reunification of Ukraine with Russia.

The intra-church struggle was associated with the emergence heresies . In the 14th century heresy arose in Novgorod Strigolnikov . On the head of the person being accepted as a monk, the hair was cut into a cross. The Strigolniki believed that faith would become stronger if it relied on reason.

At the end of the 15th century. in Novgorod, and then in Moscow heresy spread Judaizers (a Jewish merchant was considered its founder). Heretics denied the power of priests and demanded the equality of all people. This meant that monasteries did not have the right to own land and peasants.

There was also no unity among the churchmen. Militant churchmen led by the founder of the Assumption Monastery (now Joseph-Volokolamsk Monastery near Moscow) Joseph Volotsky sharply opposed the heretics. Joseph and his followers ( Josephites ) defended the right of the church to own land and peasants. Opponents of the Josephites also did not support the heretics, but objected to the accumulation of wealth and land holdings of the church. The followers of this point of view were called non-acquisitive or Sorians .

Ivan III at the church council of 1502 supported the Josephites. Heretics were executed. The Russian Church became both state and national. Church hierarchs proclaimed the autocrat the king of the earth, with his power similar to God. Church and monastic land ownership was preserved.

Lesson summary on the History of Russia “Boyar Duma. Code of Laws of 1497.”

Prerequisites for the creation of the Boyar Duma in the system of state authorities

In the 15th century under conditions of autocracy, an estate-representative monarchy arose. The beginning, conventionally, of this period is considered to be the convening of the first Zemsky Sobor in 1549 (during this period, progressive reforms of Ivan IV and much more took place, which prepared a new era in the development of the state apparatus and law). The king was the head of state. He legislated throughout the country, was the head of the executive branch, commanded troops, managed finances, and was the highest judge. In the conditions of an estate-representative monarchy, the need arose for an estate-representative body limiting the power of the king, which became Boyar Duma. The tsar now carried out all state functions with the participation of the Boyar Duma, as well as Zemsky Sobors through a system of orders and governors. It was the Boyar Duma, with the established system of localism and the Zemsky Sobor, that were the necessary attributes of an estate-representative monarchy. With the decline of their role in the state and the further liquidation of these authorities, the existence of the estate-representative monarchy ended.

The reorganization of the state apparatus began in the 80s. XV century, after the annexation of Tver, Ryazan, Nizhny Novgorod, Veliky Novgorod to Moscow and the liberation of Rus' from the Tatar yoke. The palace-patrimonial system of government, which had developed back in the days of feudal fragmentation, became unsuitable in the new conditions. The power of the tsar is significantly strengthened, the Boyar Duma is formalized, and central governing bodies - orders - are created.

The Boyar Duma, a permanent council of the nobility, was formed under the Grand Duke. Its members were appointed by the great king on the basis of parochial rules. The Boyar Duma developed from a council under the prince, which included the largest feudal lords. The Duma included the descendants of former appanage princes and the most well-born and influential boyars (20-30 people). The boyar duma did not play an independent role; it always acted together with the tsar, constituting, together with the sovereign, a single supreme power.

The Duma was the highest control institution. She collected information about service people, was interested in the expenses of orders, sometimes delving into such trifles as, for example, how much money was spent in the order on candles, ink and firewood. The decision (sentence) of the Duma (especially with the participation of the Tsar) on a complex case received from an order, or on a private complaint, became a precedent when analyzing similar cases in orders.

So, the main prerequisite for the formation of the Boyar Duma in the system of organs state power was the emergence in Russia of an estate-representative monarchy, which was supposed to rely on an estate-representative body, such as the Boyar Duma. It was this prerequisite that played a huge role in the formation of the Boyar Duma.

Formation of the Boyar Duma in the system of public administration, its social composition and terms of reference

Although the emergence of the Boyar Duma dates back to the times of the early feudal monarchy, its role increased under Ivan III. It was under Ivan III that the Boyar Duma became a permanent body of power, which had centuries-old traditions from the times of Kievan Rus and the period of feudal fragmentation in the form of meetings under the prince, the functions of which were inseparable from the prerogatives of the Moscow prince.

Competence of the Boyar Duma.

The competence of the Boyar Duma was mainly outlined by the Code of Law of 1550 and the Council Code of 1649. The legislative significance of the Duma was directly approved by the Tsar's Code of Law of 1550 (Article 98). The Duma participated in the adoption of laws together with the tsar, then as an integral part of the Zemsky Sobor. The Boyar Duma did not have a clearly defined competence separate from the tsarist power. The Duma participated in legislation and discussed bills approved by the Tsar. She discussed requests from orders and governors about matters that these bodies could not resolve, and gave instructions to orders and governors on matters of current administration. Military and international issues were discussed in it, and diplomatic correspondence passed through it. The Duma was the highest control institution. She collected information about service people, was interested in the expenses of orders, sometimes delving into such trifles as, for example, how much money was spent in the order on candles, ink and firewood.

Since the Duma often acted as the highest court, its decisions in this area very often filled in gaps in legislation. This was Duma legislation through precedents. The Duma also approved new taxes, made decisions on issues of army organization, land affairs, international relations, administered orders and supervised local government.

The Boyar Duma resolved the most important state affairs. She approved the Grand Duke's Code of Laws of 1497 and the Code of Laws of 1550 and 1589. Article 98 of the Code of Law of 1550 considered the verdict of the Boyar Duma a necessary element of legislation: “and what new cases will be, are not written in this code of law, and how those cases from the state of the report and from all the boyars will be sentenced.” The decree on indentured servitude in April 1597, the tsar "sentenced all the boyars", the November decree of the same year on runaway peasants "the tsar indicated and the boyars were sentenced."

The meaning of the Duma was indicated in the tsar’s code of law: “And if there are new cases, but are not written in this code of law, and as those cases are passed from the sovereign’s report and from all the boyars to the verdict, those cases are to be attributed to this code of law.” Sovereign decrees and boyar sentences were recognized as legislative sources. The general legislative formula was as follows: “The sovereign indicated, and the boyars sentenced.” This concept of law, as the result of the inseparable activity of the tsar and the Duma, is proven by the entire history of legislation in the Moscow state. But from this general rule there were exceptions. Thus, royal decrees without boyar sentences are mentioned as laws; on the other hand, there are a number of laws given in the form of a boyar sentence without a royal decree: “All the boyars at the Top have been sentenced.” Tsar's decrees without boyar sentences are explained either by the accident of the struggle against the boyars (under Grozny), or by the insignificance of the issues being resolved that did not require a collegial decision, or by the haste of the matter. Boyar sentences without royal decrees are explained either by the authority given to the boyars in this case, or by the absence of the king and the interregnum. Thus, from these cases it is by no means possible to conclude that the legislative rights of the tsar and the Duma are separate.

Meetings of the Boyar Duma were held in the Kremlin: in the Faceted Chamber, sometimes in the private half of the palace (the Front, Dining or Golden Chambers), less often outside the palace, for example, in the oprichnina palace of Ivan the Terrible in Moscow or Aleksandrovskaya Sloboda.

The functions and prerogatives of the Duma expanded as the tasks of public administration became more complex and differentiated. In fact, it turned into a “co-ruling” body under the monarch.

Social composition of the Boyar Duma

The Boyar Duma developed from a council under the prince, which included the largest feudal lords. The Duma included the descendants of former appanage princes and the most noble and influential boyars. Representatives of less noble families held the rank of okolnichy in the Duma.

At the end of the 15th century. The Duma consisted of two ranks: boyars and okolnichi (the highest court rank, meaning the people closest to the prince), who belonged to the Duma ranks.

Boyars until the end of the 17th century. occupied one of the dominant positions in the state. The Tsar, at his discretion, appoints boyars to one or another rank, according to tradition. The custom of localism, that is, the procedure for appointment to positions based on the principle of birth and nobility, plays an important role in this. Thus, the sign of localism was an essential feature for appointment to public office.

Boyars occupied key roles in the state. The ranks of boyars and okolnichy complained to them. Persons with the rank of boyar could occupy the highest positions in military and civil administration. They were appointed commanders of regiments, ruled regions as governors and governors, and were present in the State Duma - the highest state body of the country. The boyars also controlled the main orders, served as ambassadors and conducted diplomatic negotiations with representatives of foreign embassies.

Persons in rank okolnichikh could also occupy the same positions as the boyars, but with less importance. Okolnichy managed many orders and were appointed assistants to the boyars. Only persons granted by the sovereign could enter these ranks.

The boyar class was a hereditary state, but was sometimes complained to by the tsar. Service to the state was the only duty of the boyars. The rights of the boyars were much broader. They could only occupy the highest positions in the state and had the right of hereditary ownership of land and peasants.

In addition to the boyars and okolnichy, from the beginning of the 16th century. Duma nobles appear in the Boyar Duma (since Ivan IV), then Duma clerks.

The Duma nobles were the third "honorable" category (rank), after the boyars and okolnichy. Duma nobles took part in meetings of the Boyar Duma, led orders, and were also appointed governors in cities. Along with the Duma clerks, they served as a support for the tsarist power in the fight against the boyar aristocracy in the Duma.

The establishment of the rank of Duma nobleman was supposed to serve as a means of moderating the aristocratic element in the Boyar Duma; it made it possible to introduce into the Duma people of humble origin, people for whom, due to the latter circumstance, access to the highest ranks of boyar and okolnichy was closed, or at least extremely difficult, but whose talents and experience could be useful in the Duma. In the boyar lists, the rank of Duma nobleman was first found in 1572, under the name “nobleman in the Duma,” and the first nobleman in the Duma was Roman Vasilyevich Olferyev, the second was Mikhail Andreevich Beznin.

The clerks appear in the 16th century. rulers of orders and in this rank exercise direct influence on the affairs of public administration, little by little taking into their own hands individual threads that set in motion the entire mechanism of state life. Little by little, the center of gravity of government activity is being drawn from the Boyar Duma into these orders.

Thus, by the end of the 16th century. The Boyar Duma consisted of people of four degrees: boyars, okolnichy, Duma nobles and Duma clerks.

Boyar Duma public administration

Although the Duma was extensive in its composition and had an aristocratic character, it could not satisfy the needs of the emerging autocratic state, which needed a more operational bureaucratic body, but in the 16th century. The Duma was still one of the most important bodies in the system of state authorities. Boyar Duma under Ivan IV

The 16th century, in particular the years of the reign of Ivan IV, are considered one of the darkest periods in the history of the Russian state. It was during this century that the most dramatic change occurred in the Boyar Duma as a state governing body.

The era of boyar rule during the early childhood of Ivan IV was marked only by a fierce struggle between the boyar families of the princes Telepnev-Obolensky, Shuisky, Belsky and Glinsky; representatives of each clan wanted to stand at the head of the Duma, showing direct and predominant influence on the course of state life, each clan tried to “sit down” the other. Mutual slander, suspicion, imprisonment, and murder were used.

The difficult era of boyar rule could not help but respond to the impressionable character of the young sovereign: it determined his attitude towards the boyars in the subsequent years of his rule. One of the first concerns of Ivan IV at the beginning of his reign was the reorganization of the Sovereign Duma. The Tsar consulted with this Duma about all the most important matters: through it, the court was conducted, the appointment of governors and military arrangements were made, estates and estates were distributed, and the highest court chips were exercised. The Duma, in turn, controlled the activities of the tsar.

The New Duma was quite at the height of its recognition and its influence should be seen in the convening of the first Zemsky Sobor, the correction of the Code of Laws and in all the best undertakings of this bright era of Ivan’s reign. The significance of this Duma was very great - it had a decisive influence on the course of state life.

From the middle of the 16th century. in the Boyar Duma, a privileged part was allocated (room or local council), with which the tsar resolved a number of issues without holding general meetings. Under Ivan the Terrible in 1547-1580. the “Elected Rada” acted from among the Duma members and officials of the palace administration closest to the tsar. Often members of the Rada, for example, A.F. Adashev, on the local ladder were significantly lower than the Duma members, who were not members of this body.

From that time on, Ivan IV’s attitude towards the boyars sharply worsened. Under the influence of the instigations of the party opposing Sylvester and Adashev, the tsar began to have a negative attitude towards the boyars. But the action of the boyars - adherents of Sylvester and Adashev - especially affected the tsar during his serious illness in 1553: these boyars, at the bedside of the tsar who was dying, refused to kiss the cross of his four-year-old son Dmitry, intending to elevate the tsar’s cousin, Prince Vladimir, to the throne Andreevich. This act, which deeply touched the most sensitive side of Ivan’s heart, could no longer be forgotten by him after his recovery. Since 1560, Ivan begins an open struggle with the boyars. Sylvester and Adashev are removed from the court, the tsar comes under the influence of new advisers who are opponents of the party of Sylvester and Adashev. The Duma of Sylvester and Adashev falls: some of its members end their lives at the hands of the executioner or go into exile, the other part is gradually replaced by new elements directed in the new spirit of Ivan’s policy.

The Tsar needed liberation from the entrenched tutelage of the Boyar Duma and the Church. Ivan IV saw the oprichnina as a way out of the current situation.

In December 1564, the tsar and his entire court unexpectedly left the capital and moved to Aleksandrovskaya Sloboda. In the letters sent to Moscow, Ivan the Terrible accused the boyars of “treason,” but in relation to the townspeople it was said that the tsar “is not angry with them and does not subject them to disgrace.” Merchants and townspeople declared that they themselves were ready to “consume all traitors” and asked the Boyar Duma to return the Tsar. From the ambassadors from the metropolitan and the boyars, Ivan IV demanded full power in order to “put down his opals, and execute others and immolate their bellies.” Thus, by announcing his abdication and using the support of the Moscow settlement, the tsar wrested consent from the Duma and the Holy Council to introduce a state of emergency in the state.

The entire territory of the country was divided into “oprichnina” and “zemshchina”. The oprichnina was governed by a special “sovereign court” and had its own administrative apparatus and army. The Zemshchina was still ruled by the boyar Duma. The transfer of power to the Duma was fictitious.

Ivan the Terrible created the repressive oprichnina regime in order to eliminate from his path those social groups and strata that limited his power. Oprichnina terror fell on many princely and boyar families. Oprichnina was the first attempt to establish an autocratic form of government in Russia.

The number of the Boyar Duma was increased 3 times. This was done in order to weaken the boyar aristocracy, which was slowing down the adoption of decisions necessary for the state.

Thus, it was from Ivan the Terrible that the Boyar Duma completely became the highest advisory body under the tsar. Even under Ivan IV, the importance of the Boyar Duma was great. Ivan IV, treating the boyars with distrust, nevertheless took into account the opinion and activities of the Boyar Duma. Consequently, the importance of the Boyar Duma under Ivan IV the Terrible did not fall.

The significance of the Boyar Duma in Russian public administration in the 15th-16th centuries.

XV-XVI centuries are the heyday of the legislative activity of the Boyar Duma.

The boyars' confidence in the strength of their political position was also supported by the attitude of the Moscow sovereigns themselves towards the institution that served as a stronghold for this position.

It is quite difficult to determine the relations that operated between people who themselves never expressed them directly and precisely and did not even seem to feel the need to formulate them. It remains to follow the individual facts in which these relationships were revealed. There are quite a few facts that show the enormous importance of the Boyar Duma.

First of all, the same sovereign, about whose severity and autocracy the boyars complained so much, recognized him as the class that primarily bears the responsibility of the zemstvo structure, which maintains external security and internal order in the state. Looking at his boyars, the dying Grand Duke, the father of the Terrible, as the chronicler says, told them: “I held the Russian land with you, you swore an oath to me to serve me and my children; I order you, princess and my children, serve the princess and my son, protect under him his state, the Russian land, and all of Christianity from all enemies, from insanity and from Latinism and from your own strong people, from insults and from sales, everything is together, as much as God will help you."

The same idea, only in different words, is expressed to the boyars by the dying Vasily, and according to the story of a modern narrator about his death, very close to the court, who had the opportunity to hear or recognize the true expressions of the Grand Duke. Vasily speaks to the boyars “about the dispensation of the zemstvo”; before his death he orders them how “to build the kingdom without him.” The composition and governmental significance of the boyar duma corresponded to this political position of the class. The title of a Duma person was not hereditary by law: they were promoted to Duma ranks, “the Duma was spoken” by appointment of the sovereign. Now this appointment has become necessary in itself with the multitude of boyar families, with the abundance of available service persons in individual families. But according to the pedigree composition of the Duma of the 16th century. one can see to what extent the sovereign's appointment was consistent with the aristocratic order of persons and surnames established among the boyars. Members of the Duma, especially the two highest ranks, usually came from a well-known noble circle, which, in the person of its successive representatives, “was in charge of the Duma”; The sovereign “tidyed up both the regimental commanders and his advisers, discussing their fatherland, who was born.”

And the governmental significance of the Duma, in fact, was far from passive: it is more than an advisory assembly under its sovereign, and enjoys a certain scope in its activities.

In 1510, the same stern Grand Duke Vasily, whose power over his subjects surpassed all monarchs in the world, deciding the political fate of Pskov in Novgorod, “ordered his boyars to do as they thought in their Duma,” and the arrest of the Pskov authorities and citizens who arrived then to the sovereign with petitions, is the work of the Moscow boyars, a consequence of their Duma verdict.

The stereotypical language of official acts obscured the importance of the boyars before the authority of the tsar. But when the king spoke in simple, non-conventional language, both sides appeared in a different light. In a speech prepared for delivery at the council of 1551, Ivan, recalling his verdict on localism in the Duma of 1549, notes with pleasure that “that verdict was favorable to all the boyars.” To the council, which was attended by the prince and boyars along with the clergy, Ivan indicates the task of arranging everything according to St. rules and forefathers' laws, "on which we, the saints, the king and everyone, will sentence and put to death." The Duma itself had a procedure for discussing the issues that were next in line.

At the end of 1552, the tsar, leaving Moscow to go to Trinity to baptize his newborn son, ordered the boyars to think about the organization of the newly conquered Kazan and then sit down to feed, i.e. about replacing them with a cash salary; but they pushed forward the question of feeding that concerned them more closely, and “put the Kazan building aside,” for which the chronicler complains about them.

These facts prove that the tsars themselves respected the Boyar Duma and understood its significance for themselves. The king needed to rely on some body that would give advice to the prince on making decisions of national importance.

The Boyar Duma knew the ups and downs of its national importance, but even Ivan the Terrible was forced to reckon with it, although he periodically sent its members to the chopping block. The role of the Duma was well understood by foreigners who, before attending the royal reception, for a long time were forced to communicate with Duma officials. The Englishman Giles Fletcher, who visited Rus' under Boris Godunov, left interesting memories about the role of the Duma. He wrote: “The Tsar and the Boyar Duma, which is under him, are both the supreme rulers and the executors in relation to the publication and destruction of laws, the determination of government officials, the right to declare war and enter into alliances with foreign powers, the right to execute and pardon, the right to change decisions on civil and criminal cases."

In the 16th century the political significance of the Duma was formally approved: the boyar verdict was recognized as a necessary moment of legislation, through which each new law added to the Code of Laws had to pass.

Thus, in the XV-XVI centuries. The Duma played an important role in the political affairs of the sovereign. The princes, and then the tsars, understood the significance of the Boyar Duma and relied on its activities. Numerous facts testifying to the Tsar’s attitude towards the Duma prove the high position of the Boyar Duma in society and its role for the sovereigns. Consequently, the importance of the Boyar Duma among government bodies was the highest.



From the 10th to the 18th centuries, the boyar duma played a key role in the government apparatus of the Russian state. In its political significance, it knew both ups and downs, but it was the mechanism that the princes and sovereigns were forced to reckon with. Moreover, the entire organization of its work was such that it was difficult to discern the boyar duma in government activities. She remained in the shadows for those she controlled, not appearing openly to society.

Second after the prince

The question of the origin of the word “boyars” is controversial among historians and linguists. There is an assumption that it came from the Turkic language, but some are inclined to believe that it is of Bulgarian origin. The first mention of the boyars was recorded in 882; a little later they were also noted in the agreement between Prince Oleg and Byzantium.

The emergence of the boyars in Rus' dates back to the 6th-9th centuries, the collapse of the Slavic tribal unions. The boyars were the highest stratum of feudal society and occupied a leading position after the prince. This scheme of government existed in all regions, from Novgorod to Chernigov. Historians also agree that around the period of the 10th-11th centuries, the boyars were divided into princely and zemstvo boyars. And in the 14th century, respectable boyars appeared, managing individual divisions of the princely economy.

Compared to the rest of the population, the boyars were very rich people: they owned large plots of land and had many servants under their command. On military campaigns, they led the regiments of the prince’s army and fielded their own detachments.

Researchers find it difficult to determine the exact functions of the boyars, but, undoubtedly, their political influence and significance in the society of that time: managing cities and territories on behalf of the prince, solving important state affairs. Along with the strengthening of the political power of the boyars, their desire for greater independence also grew. And, as history later shows, in some areas the influence of the boyars was so strong that it became a serious obstacle to the princely power.

What is the Boyar Duma?

Supreme power Ancient Rus' was concentrated in the hands of the prince and his advisers. The permanent advisors were the best people each region - boyars, who were constantly with the ruler. And their meetings were called the Duma or Duma of the Boyars.

Giving an unambiguous formulation to the Boyar Duma will not be entirely correct. At different periods of history it occupied different positions. Conventionally, her reign can be divided into two stages. And the initial definition of the boyar duma can be given as follows: an advisory body under the prince. But later, in the 16th-17th centuries, its role increased significantly; it actually became the highest control body of state power.

The very fact of the existence of a boyar duma in Russia gives reason to think about the limited power of the monarch in the system of government. And some researchers agree with this. The relationship between the Duma and the prince (tsar) throughout history did not develop entirely smoothly. From today's position, it is difficult to accurately establish the limits of power and authority of both sides. In fact, a significant role has always been played by the confluence of circumstances that brought forward and pushed back one or another branch of government. But at the same time, there were times when a more harmonious “duet” could not be found.

First mentions

There is no exact information about the creation of the boyar duma, but the first mentions appear in the chronicles of the late 10th century. Under the Kiev prince Vladimir there was a certain circle of people who were on his council. With them he resolves various issues of military affairs and the structure of the earth. The advisers are called the prince's squad or boyars and are constantly with him.

Every morning the boyar duma met to discuss pressing issues: relations with neighbors, courts and punishments, trade affairs with foreigners, conclusion of treaties, civil issues. Ancient sources do not provide information about the council of boyars as a permanent state institution, but there are hints that it existed before Prince Vladimir.

With the adoption of Christianity, new faces, bishops, appeared in the prince’s council, but they did not play any significant role in the adoption important decisions. Also, in certain situations, city elders (zemstvo boyars) were also called to the Duma. This practice did not last long; a little later their presence was abolished and nothing further was heard about them in the chronicles. Thus, after the reign of Vladimir, the Duma acquired more precise features and included only single-class representatives.

Public opinion of that time absolutely trusted the boyar council and gave it great political significance. Princely government was considered good if the prince was in constant cooperation with his squad.

Composition of the Boyar Duma

In the XII-XIV centuries. The composition of the princely Duma changes somewhat. In southwestern Rus', in addition to the boyars, the Duma begins to include representatives of the regional administration - governors, thousanders. But in northeastern Rus', social relations are somewhat different. Here, boyar commanders from individual divisions of the palace administration are called to the prince's council. It is clear that such a boyar duma had a changeable character due to frequently changing faces. Basically, the meetings were only formal in nature, the prince’s decision had already been made, and the boyars simply became witnesses to the issuance of an act.

With the formation of the Russian centralized state in the 15th century, the boyar duma was represented by two ranks - high-born boyars, including former appanage princes, and okolnichy, elected from the tsar’s inner circle. But after some time, a third rank appears - Duma clerks. These are not well-born, but very educated officials who become the main executors of tsarist power and are involved in the clerical work of the entire apparatus of the boyar duma.

The rights and powers of Duma clerks contributed to the transformation of government bodies: now it is not a territorial, but a functional distribution of affairs. For the first time, judges from the boyars appear in the orders: the order of the Kazan Palace, the Yamsk order. Duma clerks also specialize in carrying out specific assignments - military, financial, diplomatic.

In the 17th century, the main composition of the boyar duma changed and was replenished; now it was represented by the tsar’s relatives and less well-born nobles who were promoted through personal merit. But in the future, along with the reduction of powers and functions of the body, its number decreases.

Important government body

The formation and strengthening of the Boyar Duma as an important state body occurs under the reign of Moscow Prince Ivan III. The collector of Russian lands gave special meaning his advice, willingly listening to objections and disagreements with his decisions. The success of his enterprises is often explained by these meetings.

In the future, the functions of the boyar duma, as the complexity of the state tasks set, expands significantly. It actually becomes a co-government body under the monarch. In the XV-XVI centuries. The Duma is the highest controlling body of the state, in whose hands everything is concentrated.

The Tsar's Code of Law of 1550 carefully sets out the functions of the boyar duma, but in fact its powers were often exceeded. Everything went through the Duma: the adoption of laws, international relations, issues of state security, judicial proceedings, administration of orders, land affairs, control of government spending and taxes, as well as control of local government.

Duma Chancellery

Documented traces of the activities of the Duma have practically not been preserved. Some documents were destroyed deliberately, in order to hide the truth from the people or due to various palace intrigues, while others were destroyed as unnecessary. Most important papers were lost in natural disasters, fires and wars.

Of course, some issues simply did not require documentation if they were secret or private. For example, such as organizing a celebration at court. But if issues of a constituent nature were discussed, then all the details were carefully prepared and written down - projects, certificates, and resolutions were drawn up. There were also confidential correspondence and special notes on special occasions. statesmen, which was the prototype of the dossier.

The bulk of the meeting time of the boyar duma was devoted to listening to the reports of the commissions. Depending on the importance of the issue, cases could be submitted for consideration in the following ways: to the Tsar with the boyars, to the boyars without the Tsar, to the Tsar without the boyars and to the Tsar in the presence of the boyars. The final decision was made by the Great Moscow Discharge in which way the report would be presented. This is the department through which all documents passed. And it acted as an intermediary between the supreme power and orders.

The final documents of the meeting were the royal decree and orders of the boyar duma. It must be placed on important documents state seal, depicting a double-headed eagle. All minutes of the meeting were entered into the archive inventory and carefully stored in special binders.

The era of Ivan the Terrible

The adolescence of Ivan IV took place in the midst of a fierce struggle between boyar families for political influence and supremacy in the Duma. The Shuiskys, Glinskys, Belskys, Telepnevs-Obolenskys, not disdaining any methods, tried to break through to power. This period characterized the boyars as an anti-state force: the treasury was constantly plundered, numerous executions, exiles, and removals from posts. As a result, the international position of the state weakened significantly, and wars raged on its external borders.

The turbulent times left their mark on the young sovereign and subsequently determined his attitude towards the boyars. At the beginning of his reign, Ivan the Terrible took measures to weaken the position of the boyars of the old aristocracy, significantly increasing the composition of the boyar duma. The king also singles out loyal people from it, with whom he decides the most important matters of government. This circle of people is called the “neighborhood.”

From 1547 to 1560, under Ivan IV, an unofficial council operated, with the help of which he carried out significant reforms and for some time pushed the boyar Duma out of government and legislation.

Zemsky Sobor and Duma

During the reign of Ivan the Terrible, a new state body appeared - Zemsky Sobors. There is an assumption that the idea of ​​​​organizing the cathedral belonged to the clergy of the tsar’s inner circle. Sources do not disclose reliable information about the purpose of convening the first Zemsky Sobor in 1549. Based on the documented speech of the king, we can conclude that he was called upon to stabilize society after all the previous troubles. Of course, the cathedral was not limited to this task alone. He was supposed to support the current policy of the government and serve as a kind of conductor between it and the people.

By the middle of the 16th century, the Zemsky Sobor and the Boyar Duma were two important government bodies under the tsar. Unlike the boyar duma, the cathedral until 1598 had an advisory role with rare exceptions. But in the era of the Time of Troubles, his role increases significantly; he has real political power with all the powers.

If initially the Zemsky Sobor and the Boyar Duma were represented by the same people with a slight difference, then in the future the cathedral will include representatives of all segments of the population.

From 1613 to 1622, under the conditions of the restoration of the state, the Zemsky Sobors became a permanent operating body of power. But by the end of the 17th century, their importance gradually weakened, and single-estate commissions came to replace them. Throughout the history of its existence, the Zemsky Sobor met more than 50 times.

Time of Troubles

Time period late XVI - early XVII century, after the death of Ivan the Terrible, is marked by a severe crisis in the state, which then results in Great Troubles. A fierce struggle for power begins again among the boyars. Several rulers are replaced in a short period of time. Those coming to the throne did not want to take into account the control of the boyar duma, so they did not stay there for long. All this is accompanied by economic decline, prolonged crop failures, famine, popular unrest and pogroms.

In 1610, the boyar duma came to power. And the government of the state is concentrated in the hands of seven Duma leaders, who could not decide on their relationship with each other in the struggle for power. Their management was of a very contradictory nature: the adopted resolutions were constantly changing, distorted, and redrawn. The boyars could not work and cooperate together. At some point, it was even decided to transfer the Russian throne to the Poles. And this fact showed the entire inconsistency of the Duma. Its authority as a government body was broken. Society could not have confidence in such a boyar duma that it voluntarily gave the throne to a foreigner in order to protect its interests.

By the decision of the Zemsky Sobor in 1613, Mikhail Romanov was elected to the throne. His election put an end to the Time of Troubles and became a compromise that suited everyone.

Termination of the Boyar Duma

Closer to the middle of the 17th century, the boyar duma lost its former significance and became obsolete. And if the first Romanov on the throne still somehow relied on this body, then subsequent kings listen less and less to the boyars and make independent decisions. Russia was becoming an autocracy. Thus, the order of “Secret Affairs” created by Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich in 1654 is not subordinate to the boyar duma and issues related to it are resolved without its participation. It was the royal secret office, overseeing civil and military affairs.

After the abolition of localism in 1682, the role of the boyar duma in the system of state power was irrevocably reduced. From a legislative body, it becomes a bureaucratic one, and its rule under the tsar is no longer of a formal nature.

The Boyar Duma finally ceased to exist during the reign of Peter I, when the capital was transferred to St. Petersburg. The appearance of the Senate in 1711 only emphasized its uselessness. The dying bureaucratic body did not find a place for itself in the progressive new state.

The origin of the word “boyar” is still unknown. There are also no documentary sources that would clearly indicate what responsibilities were assigned to them. It is only known that these were advisers close to the prince who assisted in resolving issues of national importance.

The Boyar Duma is a permanent council under the prince, which decides the highest zemstvo issues. His activities were of a legislative nature. In addition to the boyars, the composition included warriors, and sometimes also representatives of the higher clergy.

The Boyar Duma decided on the main issues of politics, legislation and court. At the same time, they were discussed together with the prince (tsar). Competence, rights and responsibilities have not been defined. As a rule, several people were present at the council, but if the most important issues were discussed, the meeting was held in an expanded format. The Duma participated in resolving issues of a religious and legislative nature, internal government structure, and foreign policy.

The leadership of the meeting was carried out by the prince (tsar), who also approved the decisions made. And in case of his absence, these functions were provided to the authorized boyar. When resolving a common issue, the princes of several lands could hold joint meetings. The Boyar Duma was closely connected with the prince until it consisted mostly of warriors who moved with him from place to place. Then, after strengthening the zemstvo element, it gained greater independence.

Until the 15th century, the Boyar Duma met as needed. Subsequently, it became a permanent advisory body, which included Duma clerks, boyars, okolnichy, and Duma nobles. The first ones were in charge of office work and drafted decisions. They were entrusted with ambassadorial, local and discharge affairs. The Duma clerk was the lowest rank on the council.

The court rank of “okolnichy” existed in the Russian state from the 13th to the 18th centuries. Initially, their functions included arranging the prince’s travels and participating in negotiations with ambassadors. Okolnichy was the second rank of the Duma after the boyar. Persons holding this position were appointed regimental commanders, heads of orders, and they took part in organizing court ceremonies.

The Duma nobleman was the third rank of the Duma. They administered orders, were appointed governors, performed military and court duties, and participated in Duma meetings. Their number was small; they, as a rule, belonged to noble families.

At the beginning of the 17th century (1606), Prince Vasily Shuisky, nicknamed the boyar, was “shouted out” for his reign. In order to secure the support of the Duma or at least somehow weaken its hostile attitude towards itself, new king decided to meet the claims of the aristocracy halfway and impose a number of obligations on himself. In this regard, he took an oath in the form of a “kissing record”, in which he promised that he would not: judge without the Duma, impose disgrace without sufficient grounds, take away property from the families of those executed. Thus, the king's power was limited. However, the obligations were often not fulfilled in practice. At the same time, some historians regard the oath of Vasily Shuisky as the first step towards the creation of a rule of law state.

The boyar tsar had few supporters and often changed his allies and views. He justified his rights to the throne by the antiquity of his family. However, the people did not trust him. He enjoyed neither authority nor love, since his word could not be trusted. This was precisely the reason for his overthrow, which occurred on July 17, 1610.

The Boyar Duma existed until the reign, in particular until 1711, when the Senate was formed.

Boyar Duma, the highest council under the prince (from 1547 - under the tsar) in the Russian state of the 10th century. XVIII century The activities of the boyar duma were of a legislative nature. IN Kievan Rus the boyar duma was a meeting princes with warriors (princely men, Duma members) and city elders (zemstvo boyars, descendants of the local nobility), and sometimes senior representatives of the clergy were present.

In the Moscow State, the members of the boyar duma were: boyars , devious, duma nobles And Duma clerks.

The aristocratic element had a dominant place in this institution. U John III The Duma consisted of 13 boyars, 6 okolnichy, 1 butler and 1 treasurer. U John IV - 10 boyars, 1 okolnichy, 1 kravchiy, 1 treasurer, 8 Duma nobles. There were, of course, clerks, whose importance, given the abilities and trust of the sovereign, sometimes increased to an enormous degree. The aristocracy had special advantages for entering the Duma. The most noble families (former rulers and old boyars) had the right, bypassing the lower ranks, to enter directly into the boyars. Less noble princely and boyar families were first appointed to the okolnichy. For the lower service and bureaucratic elements, the path to the Duma nobles and Duma clerks was opened.

The sovereign received the boyars daily, both Duma members and heads orders. Having the need for a conference, the sovereign called either several nearby boyars and okolnichy to himself, or went to the general meeting of the Duma. The verdict in the case was written by the clerk according to the formula: “The sovereign indicated and the boyars sentenced.” It happened that the sovereign instructed the Duma to decide the matter without him, and then the Duma verdict was brought to him for approval and approval.

L. A. Tikhomirov

Boyar Duma - the highest council under the prince, and then under the tsar in the state of the 10th-17th centuries; consisted of representatives of the feudal lords. aristocracy. The activities of the B.D. were of a legislative nature. She participated in the discussion of issues of legislation, foreign policy, internal government structure, religion, etc. In Kievan Rus there was a meeting of princes with warriors (princely men, Duma members) and city elders (zemstvo boyars, descendants of the tribal nobility), sometimes higher officials were also present representatives of the clergy. The B.D. did not have a permanent composition and was convened as needed. From the 9th century as a result of the allocation of land to the princely men and their equation with the zemstvo boyars, the Duma consisted only of boyars. During the period of feudal fragmentation, it was a council of feudal lords (the Grand Duke and his vassals) and had significant political influence. In North-Eastern Rus' XIV-XV centuries. in the B.D. sat the respectable boyars and members of the prince’s administrative and managerial apparatus (tysyatsky, okolnichy, butler, etc.). From the beginning of the 15th century. Introduced boyars (great boyars) - representatives of the upper stratum of boyars, permanent advisers to the prince, and executors of the most important assignments - become members of the B.D. From the end of the 15th century. The B.D. turned into a permanent advisory body under the supreme power. It included Duma ranks - boyars, okolnichy, Duma nobles and a little later - Duma clerks. The predominant importance in the B. d. belonged to the boyars from the titled nobility. Later, the princely boyar aristocracy was significantly weakened by the reforms of the 1550s. and especially the oprichnina. However, in the 2nd half. XVI and XVII centuries. Under the conditions of a class-representative monarchy, the B.D., to a certain extent, shared power with the tsar. In the 16th and 17th centuries. The composition of the B. d. was replenished by the center. power at the expense of less noble persons. In the 2nd half of the 17th century. the B. value decreases. With the formation of the Senate in 1711, the B.D. was liquidated.

Vladimir Boguslavsky

Material from the book: "Slavic Encyclopedia. XVII century". M., OLMA-PRESS. 2004.

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Boyars, boyars, the upper class of Ancient Rus', according to I. I. Sreznevsky, can be derived either from the word “fight” (“howl”), or from the word “painful”.