Roman Empire under Marcus Aurelius and Commodus
In the autumn of 165 AD. e. A plague epidemic began in Seleucia, and most of the army fell ill. There was no point in thinking about continuing hostilities; the war ended, but Armenia and Mesopotamia remained in Roman hands. The returning army spread the plague throughout Asia Minor, Greece and Italy, and this epidemic turned into the greatest disaster of antiquity. Individual outbreaks of the epidemic remained until 189 AD. e. In the eyes of public opinion, the epidemic was a punishment for the plunder of Parthian shrines and the desecration of the Arsacid tomb.
Despite this disaster, both rulers in 166 AD. e. They celebrated the victories of their troops with great triumph and added “Armenian, Median and Parthian” to their titles. Along with the wave of Roman expansion, the activity of Roman embassies revived, as Chinese sources report that in 166 AD. e. A group of Roman merchants appeared at the court of Emperor Huang-Ti. True, this journey was episodic in nature, nevertheless it shows what prospects opened up for Rome.
In a phase of extreme exhaustion and paralysis of the Roman forces, which is compared to the situation after the suppression of the Pannonian revolt before the defeat of Varus, in 166 AD. e. The Roman Danube front was crushed. Great unrest in the 2nd and 3rd centuries. n. e. in this region have been outlined since the time of Domitian, so the defensive forces there received significant reinforcements. However, unlike earlier battles, the invading neighboring tribes were now pushed back, and events were determined by powerful initiatives from deep within the north-eastern European area. Caused by the so-called Marcomanni wars, the first waves of the great migration of peoples encountered Roman dams.
As far as it is possible to determine the movement in depth, it was about two main impacts. First, in the east of the Danube lands, the westward pressure of the Alans, a Sarmatian population group, prevailed, who from their original settlement on the Caspian Sea advanced to the Lower Danube. Another wave came, on the contrary, from the north. It was caused by the advance of the Goths from southern Sweden to the Oder and further in a southeastern direction. Because of this, a number of East German tribes came into movement. The Burgundians from Bornholm entered Silesia, the Semnons migrated from Mark of Brandenburg, and the Lombards also migrated. The Marcomanni, whose name the war bore, remained under foreign pressure.
To this it must be added that the Marcomanni were led by a very strong personality - King Ballamore. Meanwhile, it is unclear to what extent the attacks on Roman possessions, which continued in the coming years and covered the area between Regensburg and the mouth of the Danube, were actually coordinated. It is also unclear whether there was talk of a coalition of various tribes and groups of different ethnic origins. The Quadians, Marcomanni, Iazygians, Roxolani, Costobocians and Alans were the names given to various nationalities who had one common interest, namely a simultaneous attack on the Roman borders on the Danube and Dacia.
Already in 166 AD. e. Battles broke out. After a deep breakthrough in the Middle Danube, the Marcomanni advanced to upper Italy in the Verona region. The open area was completely devastated. The attacks became more acute because the attackers were not content with just ordinary robberies, but also wanted to settle there. Marcus Aurelius immediately sensed the extent of this danger; he mobilized his last forces for defense. Two legions and auxiliaries were deployed and, as in few cases of extreme necessity, even slaves were armed. To protect Italy, fortified lines were built, and a special detachment was stationed at the protective cordon to strengthen the defense under the command of the consular.
Despite all these measures, in 171 AD. e. It was definitely not the Romans who took the initiative. In the Pannonian provinces of Dacia, Norica and Raetia, attacks by neighboring tribes began in the same year, the results of which can still be judged today by the destroyed strongholds, towns and villas. In 167 AD e. in Dacia had to repel an enemy attack, in 170 AD. e. suffered a crushing defeat and the commander Marcus Cornelius Fronto was killed, in the same year the Sarmatian Costoboks from the lower Danube advanced deeply into Greece. In 171 AD. The Marcomanni burned Venice, but the experienced Roman commanders Tiberius Claudius Pompeian and Publius Helvius Pertinac were able to push back the simultaneously attacking Quadi and Narists, clear Noricum and Raetia, and take away most of their booty from the Germans who had fled to the Danube.
Lucius Verus died in 169 AD. e. in Altina shortly after the start of this struggle. Marcus Aurelius remained in Rome for some time after this, where he held a sensational auction of valuables and works of art in order to obtain additional funds to equip the army. In order to bind Pompeian more closely to himself, he married him to Lucilla, the widow of Verus. Then he went to the Danube front and chose Carnunt as his headquarters.
Between 172 and 175 n. e. Continuous and large-scale offensives were carried out against the Quadi, Marcomanni and Narists in the Middle Danube region, as well as against the Sarmatians on the Tisza. These are the same battles that are depicted on the thirty-meter-high Column of Marcus on Piazza Colonna in Rome, although its relief cannot be interpreted with certainty, like that of Trajan's Column. These battles also include the miracles depicted there that saved the then stranded Roman troops - the miracle of rain and the miracle of lightning.
Peace agreements with the Quadi and, finally, with the Iazyges stopped, at least for a while, these battles, and the agreement with the Iazyges in 175 AD. e. was urgently needed by Marcus Aurelius, because at that time Gaius Avidius Cassius, commander of a group of troops in the east of the empire, rebelled against him and attracted most of Asia Minor, Syria and Egypt to his side. Therefore, the princeps was forced to leave the theater of military operations on the Danube as quickly as possible and concentrate on the confrontation with the usurper.
The conditions of the world allow us to see the outlines of a complete concept. Since the attacks of recent years were the result of untimely detection of regroupings in the imperial frontier, Roman military leaders learned a lesson from this experience. Now strict order and surveillance of the forefield north and east of the Danube were normalized. In the future, a free strip was kept on the left bank of the Danube, first 14 and then 7 km wide. Routes and places for trade were strictly established, and direct control over the forefield was expanded and strengthened through the advancement of individual fortresses. However, much more sensitive for the enemy was the demand to return all prisoners and allocate auxiliary groups, most of which were immediately sent to Britain.
According to extremely controversial information from the “History of the Augustans”, the princeps allegedly wanted to make Bohemia and Moravia the province of Marcomannia, and the space between Pannonia and Dacia - the province of Sarmatia. But there is no evidence for such far-reaching plans.
No matter how long the new order seemed, it was only a short respite. Already in 178 AD. e. the battles of the so-called Second Marcomannic War began again; Marcus Aurelius, together with his son Commodus, again went to the Danube and died there in 180 AD. e. This phase marks the founding of a new legionnaire camp on German soil. In 179 AD e. Castra Regina (Regensburg) was founded. Almost simultaneously, Roman military formations again advanced into the Slovakia region. An inscription on the rock of Trenzin (approximately 100 km north of Pressburg) testifies to the presence of the II Legion.
The tensions that both decades between 161 and 180 brought to the empire. n. e., was not limited to the Parthian and Marcomannic wars, since, in addition to these two places of hostilities, uprisings and riots broke out in almost all directions of the world. Immediately after the start of the reign along with the Parthian War in 162 AD. had to suppress the Hutt uprising in Upper Germany and in the same year the uprising of the Caledonians in Britain. Added to this was the uprising of shepherds in the Nile Delta. Religious motives made this rebellion very dangerous, even Alexandria was under threat for some time. This revolt was eventually suppressed by Gaius Avidius Cassius. And the extreme southwest of the empire experienced times full of danger; in 172 and 177 n. e. Southern Spain was attacked several times from the sea by Moorish tribes and subjected to plunder. The situation was resolved only with the help of a large special military unit.
The empire managed to establish itself once again, but at what cost. Even Roman sources do not hush up the great losses during these two decades, not only among the military leadership, but also among the broad masses of the population of large cities due to robbery and plague. If the author Cassius Dio, who is close to the events, says that in 175 AD. e. When peace was concluded with the Iazyges, about 100,000 Roman prisoners of war were returned, then this number is proof only of the number of Romans captured in this theater of operations.
It is known that Marcus Aurelius was fascinated by philosophy from his early youth. If we consider him a Stoic, then we must take into account that the teaching of the Stoics, over the course of a long spiritual and historical process, has long become a kind of popular philosophy. Its postulates emphasize the irrelevance of external things and forms and put the internal development and self-education of a person in first place. Marcus Aurelius was completely immersed in this world, even externally. He wore a beard, sometimes a philosopher's robe, often slept on the floor and adhered to strict asceticism. The reflective nature of Marcus Aurelius developed under the influence of good teachers. Adrian once jokingly called him the most just, and the rigor of his efforts on himself is reflected in his “Self-Contemplation.”
These notes were not originally intended for publication or philosophical use, and from this point of view they can be placed on a par with Augustine's confessions. They best reveal the self-absorbed man and that Roman ruler who was able to establish the relative nature of all things and had the strongest awareness of the scale of human activity and the changeability of what is happening: “On what tiny lumps of earth are you crawling?... Asia, Europe - nooks and crannies world, the whole sea for the world is a drop, Athos is a lump in it, everything present is a point in eternity. Everything is insignificant, changeable and transitory.” He expressed a similar awareness of frailty in the phrase: “The time is near when you will forget everyone, and everyone will forget you.”
Associated with this knowledge is the concept of the equality of all people. But it is natural that in the ancient understanding of the ego there was the equality of the free, the equality of members of civilized humanity. From the concept of this equality arose the personal idea of statehood: “I imagine a state in which power is evenly distributed, which is governed by the principles of equality and freedom of speech and by a monarchy that respects above all else the freedom of its subjects.”
"Self-Contemplation" represents a call to self, a call to self-control, which Marcus Aurelius achieved. The final word of this spiritual diary is: “Man, you were a citizen of this great city. Do you care if you are 5 years old or 3 years old? After all, obedience to the laws is equal for everyone. What is terrible in that if it is not a tyrant or an unjust judge who sends you away from the city, but the very nature that settled you in it? So the praetor releases the actor he has received from the stage. - “But I didn’t perform five actions, but only three.” - “Quite right. But in life, three acts are the whole play. For the end is announced to those who were once the author of the origin of life, and are now the author of its termination. You have nothing to do with either one or the other. Leave this life, remain benevolent, just as the one who lets you go is benevolent" (Aureliy M. Rostov n/d., 1991. Translated by S. N. Rogozin)
The historical image of Marcus Aurelius was formed under the influence of two completely opposite impressions. The Introspections depict the inner struggles of the Stoic philosopher and became Frederick the Great's favorite reading, while the four-metre tall equestrian statue on the Capitoline Hill, one of the most famous Roman equestrian statues in general, embodies the power of a ruler and commander. You can appreciate a philosopher, admire a man, but there is no reason to idealize a princeps.
Of course, extraordinary strength of character and firmness was required in order, despite a chain of disasters, to achieve the successful defense of the empire, especially since Marcus Aurelius was not trained in military craft and was not prepared for the leadership functions of this kind. Even if he enjoyed the successes of such generals as Pompeian, Pertinac and Avidius Cassius, the responsibility for defending the empire still lay with him alone. Here, as in other areas of domestic policy, the outcome of his reign is certainly positive.
But he is confronted by a completely unsatisfactory solution to personal management problems. If the Roman Empire could withstand an unsuitable princeps, then it was under Marcus Aurelius that the historical test of the adoptive empire took place. He is to blame for the fact that this institution did not work precisely at the moment when it was a question of putting a truly worthy person at the head of the state. He is to blame for the fact that in addition to the external crisis of the empire, an internal one was added.
Although Commodus was close to his father for quite a long time before he came to power, he did not continue the operations led by Marcus Aurelius and did not adopt his style of rule. But it would be wrong to see in the actions of the new princeps a new concept of the principate. His decision to interrupt the fighting on the Danube hardly reflected a realistic assessment of the empire's potential. Saving her strength never interested Commodus even later.
On the other hand, there is no reason to dramatize the fact that the unreliable young princeps joined those who now advocated a cessation of the offensive. For the status quo on the Danube border was largely preserved, although Roman outposts were removed and subsidies were paid to border neighbors. The fact that military and foreign policy initiatives should not be expected from Commodus was already evident here. Where there were minor attacks on the Roman frontier during his reign, as in Britain (around 184 AD), on the upper Rhine, where in 187 AD e. The Strasbourg Legion was stationed in Denmark and Spain, and local commanders took successful defensive measures. Commodus himself was content with the fact that back in 180 AD. e. celebrated a new triumph for the victory over the Danube peoples, and five years later adopted the victorious name Britannicus. After his return to Rome, the border troops never saw him again.
Commodus was also not interested in domestic politics. Inside the empire, a pure regime of favorites reigned, accompanied by wastefulness and corruption. The rivalry of the courtiers and their struggle for power quickly led to a state close to anarchy. Moreover, Commodus, naturally, did not cover his creatures. So, he abandoned Perenna, a power-hungry representative of the equestrian class, who from 182 to 185 AD. e., being a praetorian prefect, he was an influential person. This happened when a large delegation from the British legions arrived in Rome and brought charges against Perenna. The prefect was deposed and killed.
But his successor Cleander did not suffer a better fate. As a Phrygian slave, he was once sold in Rome and, thanks to the position of valet, became the most influential person in the state. When in 189 AD. e. famine began, Cleander was also sacrificed to the Roman plebs. The last team to set the course from about 191 AD. e., there were again the valet Eclectus, the praetorian prefect Letus and the mistress of the princeps Christian Marcia.
It is quite obvious that such a government did not enjoy any authority, and the guard was kept in check only by constant signs of favor and compliance. Already in 182 AD. e. The princeps sister Lucilla and Ummidius Quadratus conceived a rebellion against Commodus. However, the conspiracy failed, and since a number of senators participated in it, the persecution of Commodus fell on those senators whom the chronically distrustful princeps considered his enemies. Like Caligula and Nero, Commodus combined fear with an overestimation of his own personality and pathological behavior.
The extravagance of the court and government difficulties, not eliminated by new confiscations and taxes, quickly led to mismanagement. Already in 180 AD. e., for example, grain prices in Egypt tripled. Neither the reorganization of the grain fleet nor other measures changed anything during the crisis. Stabilization of the economy and currency failed; Commodus's slaves, freedmen and courtiers were not capable of this.
An inscription from North Africa reveals the poor state of daily life of the population. This appeal to the princeps speaks of the plight of ordinary colons. Small tenants turn to the ruler in a pleading tone: “Come to our aid and, since we, poor peasants who earn our bread with our own hands, cannot resist the tenant before your procurator, who, thanks to generous gifts, enjoys their trust, take pity on us and honor us with our sacred answer, so that we do not do more than what we are supposed to do according to the decree of Adrian and according to the letters to your procurators... so that we, peasants and cultivators of our domains, by the grace of your Majesty, are no longer disturbed by tenants.” In his reply, Commodus expressed his concern "that nothing should be required which would violate the fundamental statute."
If there they limited themselves to requests, then in other places such circumstances gave rise to uprisings. In Southern Gaul, public discontent was led by the deserter Maternus. He proclaimed himself emperor, however, after this he was expelled from Gaul, but in 186 AD. e. continued the gang war in Italy until he was caught and executed.
Amid these crises and needs, Commodus lived a luxurious lifestyle. If his father was imbued with the deepest sense of duty and was tormented by remorse, then Commodus had no idea of such motives. But he was obsessed with his nobility. As the first porphyry ruler, he believed that there were no limits for him, that he had the right to demand the highest respect. After Lucilla's conspiracy, when the courtiers convinced him that he would better protect himself from further assassination attempts if he showed himself less in public, he lived constantly in his palace.
In the first years of his reign, the coins of the state mint depicted the traditional state gods, primarily Jupiter, Minerva, Mars and Apollo, and also due to the ruler's love for the eastern gods Sarapis, Isis and Cybele. Jupiter received a new nickname Victorious, which was followed by Commodus being greeted as Victorious. At the same time, as in the time of Trajan, the eternity of Rome, the happiness of the new century - the happiness of times and the happiness of the century - were glorified. Commodus was so confident in his own happiness that he included a new element, happy, in his title.
In contrast to what followed later, the beginning of the reign can be called moderate. But everything changed dramatically when Commodus, after the death of Cleander, decided to lead politics himself. In any case, he abandoned his seclusion in the palace and stopped hiding his monocratic pretensions. In this regard, it would be a mistake to use the concept of “absolutism”.
The renaming and distribution of new names now took on a painful nature, which Commodus was very keen on, and this once again suggests that he considered the empire his property. So, in 190 AD. e. the name Rome disappeared, the city began to be called Colonia Commodiana, the Roman Senate - the Commodian Senate, moreover, all legions had to bear the name Commodus. A particularly successful solution came to the ruler’s mind regarding the names of the months. He changed his name and titles quite often and it turned out that they now consisted of 12 elements, so it was easier and more expedient to change the old names of the months to twelve new ones: Lucius, Elius, Aurelius, Commodus, Augustus, Hercules, Roman, Victorious, Amazonian, Invincible, Happy, Pius.
Hand in hand with the strengthening of external forms went a disregard for old traditions. Thus, the princeps often began to appear in silk and purple clothes, as a priest of Isis, he participated in the processions of this cult with a smoothly shaved head and presented himself as a slave before the gods. While the gladiator in the eyes of the Romans was considered despicable and declassed, Commodus saw in him a life ideal. He turned the hunt into a massacre and reduced Herculean ideas to the point of absurdity.
With all his respect for the various eastern gods, Hercules stood first in the final phase of his reign. He wanted to be the Roman Hercules, the opposite of the Greek god. Thus, on coins and medallions, Commodus wore a helmet with the image of a lion’s muzzle; a lion’s skin and a club were always carried in front of him; these details lay on his chair when he himself did not take part in official ceremonies. If the mythological Hercules defeated the monster, then Commodus looked up to him in his own way. He ordered the Roman cripples to be caught, dressed as giants, and then he killed them with a club, as he did with wild animals in the circus.
Everything that was hidden behind the true dexterity of the princeps was obscured by these excesses. They eventually began to terrify even those closest to him. When Commodus announced his intention to join the consulate on January 1, 193 AD. e. as a gladiator, his entourage Marcia and Eclectus, after an unsuccessful poisoning attempt, ordered the athlete to strangle him on December 31, 192 AD. e. in the bath. Long-restrained hatred resulted in a curse on the memory of the murdered man. The images of Commodus were discarded and the name hammered in with a chisel. However, in 197 AD. e. Septimius Severus associated himself with Commodus, naturally to demonstrate after the turning point of 193 AD. e. continuity of the principate. He even ordered the deification of his predecessor.
However, there is also a modern apotheosis of this perversion. Commodus supposedly needs to be understood on the basis of his “primordial Spanish character,” his desire for primitiveness, for a new form of religiosity, henotheistic syncretism or “religious absolutism.” However, these interpretations are just as unconvincing as in the case of Caligula or Nero, since they do not reflect the essence of the historical Commodus, the princeps who ended the Antonine dynasty. If at the beginning of the 2nd century. n. e. careful ideological justification founded a new phase of the principate, and it was again confirmed by the constructive achievements of the new princeps, then the last Antonin with his fantastic excesses brought it to the point of absurdity. The Roman Hercules Commodus is separated by a whole world from the Herculean ideology of Trajan. The chaos of the era of Commodus was caused by himself; it was with him that the era of “iron and rust” began in the eyes of the contemporary historian Cassius Dio, and, according to Gibbon, the beginning of the “Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire.”
, philosopher, representative of late Stoicism, follower of Epictetus. The Last of the Five Good Emperors.
Preparation for power
Mark Annius Verus(later after the first adoption - Marcus Annius Catilius Severus, and after the second - Marcus Aelius Aurelius Verus Caesar), the son of Marcus Annius Verus and Domitia Lucilla, who went down in history under the name Marcus Aurelius, was born in Rome on April 26, 121 into a senatorial family of Spanish origin .
Marcus Aurelius's paternal grandfather (also Marcus Annius Verus) was a three-time consul (elected for the third time in 126).
Marcus Annius Verus was initially adopted by the third husband of Emperor Hadrian's mother, Domitia Lucilla Paulina, by Publius Catilius Severus (consul of 120) and became known as Marcus Annius Catilius Severus.
Essays
The only work of Marcus Aurelius is a philosophical diary consisting of separate discussions in 12 “books” “To Himself” (ancient Greek. Εἰς ἑαυτόν ) . It is a monument of moralistic literature, written in Greek (Koine) in the 170s, mainly on the northeastern borders of the empire and in Sirmium.
Image in cinema
The image of Marcus Aurelius was embodied by Richard Harris in Ridley Scott's film Gladiator and by Alec Guinness in the film The Fall of the Roman Empire.
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Notes
Literature
Texts and translations
- The work was published in the Loeb classical library under number 58.
- In the “Collection Budé” series, the publication of his work has begun: Marc Auréle. Écrits pour lui-même. Tome I: Introduction general. Livre I. Texte établi et traduit par P. Hadot, avec la collaboration de C. Luna. 2e circulation 2002. CCXXV, 94 p.
Russian translations
- Life and deeds Mark Aurelius Antoninus the Caesar of Rome, and at the same time his own and wise thoughts about himself. Translated from German by S. Volchkov. St. Petersburg, . 112, 256 pp.
- 5th ed. St. Petersburg, 1798.
- Emperor's Reflections Marcus Aurelius About what is important to yourself. / Per. L. D. Urusova. Tula, 1882. X, 180 pp.
- reprint: M., 1888, 1891, 1895, 108 pp.; M., 1902, 95 p. M., 1911, 64 p. M., 1991.
- To yourself. Reflections. / Per. P. N. Krasnova. St. Petersburg, 1895. 173 pp.
- Alone with myself. Reflections. / Per. S. M. Rogovina, entry. essay by S. Kotlyarevsky. (Series “Monuments of World Literature”). M.: Sabashnikov Publishing House, 1914. LVI, 199 pp.
- (reprinted several times since 1991)
- Marcus Aurelius Antoninus. Reflections. / Per. and approx. A.K. Gavrilova. Articles by A. I. Dovatura, A. K. Gavrilov, J. Unta. Comm. I. Unta. (Series “Literary monuments”). L.: Science, . 245 pp. 25,000 copies.
- 2nd ed., rev. and additional St. Petersburg: Nauka, 1993. 248 pp. 30,000 copies.
- Marcus Aurelius. To myself. / Per. V. B. Chernigovsky. M., Aletheia-New Acropolis, . 224 pp.
Research
- Francois Fontaine. Marcus Aurelius / Translation by N. Zubkov. - M.: Young Guard, 2005. - 336 p. - 5000 copies.
- - ISBN 5-235-02787-6.
- Renan E. Marcus Aurelius and the end of the ancient world. St. Petersburg, 1906.
- Rudnev V.V. Emperor Marcus Aurelius as a philosopher // Faith and Reason. 1887, No. 20, book. I, dept. Phil., pp. 385-400.
- Rudnev V.V. Emperor Marcus Aurelius and his attitude towards Christianity // Faith and Reason, 1889, No. 13, book. I, dept. Philosopher pp. 17-36.
- Unt Ya. “Reflections” of Marcus Aurelius as a literary and philosophical monument // Marcus Aurelius. Reflections. Per. A.K. Gavrilova. L., 1985.- P.93-114.
Gadzhikurbanova P. A. “Philosophical Meditations” by Marcus Aurelius // MegaLing-2008. Horizons of applied linguistics and linguistic technologies: Dokl. international scientific conf. 24-28 Sep. 2008, Ukraine, Crimea, Partenit. Simferopol, 2008. pp. 42-43.
- Links
- in the library of Maxim Moshkov Panteleev A. D. (Russian) .. 2005. .
- Research and publications on the history of the ancient world
- Marcus Aurelius.
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Excerpt characterizing Marcus Aurelius
The German, closing his eyes, showed that he did not understand.“If you want, take it for yourself,” the officer said, handing the girl an apple. The girl smiled and took it. Nesvitsky, like everyone else on the bridge, did not take his eyes off the women until they passed. When they passed, the same soldiers walked again, with the same conversations, and finally everyone stopped. As often happens, at the exit of the bridge the horses in the company cart hesitated, and the whole crowd had to wait.
- And what do they become? There is no order! - said the soldiers. -Where are you going? Damn! There's no need to wait. Even worse, he will set the bridge on fire. “Look, the officer was locked in too,” the stopped crowds said from different sides, looking at each other, and still huddled forward towards the exit.
Looking under the bridge at the waters of Ens, Nesvitsky suddenly heard a sound that was still new to him, quickly approaching... something big and something plopping into the water.
- Look where it's going! – the soldier standing close said sternly, looking back at the sound.
“He’s encouraging them to pass quickly,” said another restlessly.
The crowd moved again. Nesvitsky realized that it was the core.
- Hey, Cossack, give me the horse! - he said. - Well you! stay away! step aside! way!
With great effort he reached the horse. Still screaming, he moved forward. The soldiers squeezed to give him way, but again they pressed on him again so that they crushed his leg, and those closest were not to blame, because they were pressed even harder.
- Nesvitsky! Nesvitsky! You, madam!” a hoarse voice was heard from behind.
Nesvitsky looked around and saw, fifteen paces away, separated from him by a living mass of moving infantry, red, black, shaggy, with a cap on the back of his head and a brave mantle draped over his shoulder, Vaska Denisov.
“Tell them what to give to the devils,” he shouted. Denisov, apparently in a fit of ardor, shining and moving his coal-black eyes with inflamed whites and waving his unsheathed saber, which he held with a bare little hand as red as his face.
- Eh! Vasya! – Nesvitsky answered joyfully. -What are you talking about?
“Eskadg “onu pg” you can’t go,” shouted Vaska Denisov, angrily opening his white teeth, spurring his beautiful black, bloody Bedouin, who, blinking his ears from the bayonets he bumped into, snorting, spraying foam from the mouthpiece around him, ringing, he beat his hooves on the boards of the bridge and seemed ready to jump over the railings of the bridge if the rider would allow him. - What is this? like bugs! exactly like bugs! Pg "och... give dog" ogu!... Stay there! you're a wagon, chog"t! I'll kill you with a saber! - he shouted, actually taking out his saber and starting to wave it.
The soldiers with frightened faces pressed against each other, and Denisov joined Nesvitsky.
- Why aren’t you drunk today? – Nesvitsky said to Denisov when he drove up to him.
“And they won’t let you get drunk!” answered Vaska Denisov. “They’ve been dragging the regiment here and there all day long. It’s like that, it’s like that. Otherwise, who knows what it is!”
- What a dandy you are today! – Nesvitsky said, looking at his new mantle and saddle pad.
Denisov smiled, took out a handkerchief from his bag, which smelled of perfume, and stuck it in Nesvitsky’s nose.
- I can’t, I’m going to work! I got out, brushed my teeth and put on perfume.
The dignified figure of Nesvitsky, accompanied by a Cossack, and the determination of Denisov, waving his saber and shouting desperately, had such an effect that they squeezed onto the other side of the bridge and stopped the infantry. Nesvitsky found a colonel at the exit, to whom he needed to convey the order, and, having fulfilled his instructions, went back.
Having cleared the road, Denisov stopped at the entrance to the bridge. Casually holding back the stallion rushing towards his own and kicking, he looked at the squadron moving towards him.
Transparent sounds of hooves were heard along the boards of the bridge, as if several horses were galloping, and the squadron, with officers in front, four in a row, stretched out along the bridge and began to emerge on the other side.
The stopped infantry soldiers, crowding in the trampled mud near the bridge, looked at the clean, dapper hussars marching orderly past them with that special unfriendly feeling of alienation and ridicule that is usually encountered with various branches of the military.
- Smart guys! If only it were on Podnovinskoe!
- What good are they? They just drive for show! - said another.
- Infantry, don't dust! - the hussar joked, under which the horse, playing, splashed mud at the infantryman.
“If I had driven you through two marches with your backpack, the laces would have been worn out,” the infantryman said, wiping the dirt from his face with his sleeve; - otherwise it’s not a person, but a bird sitting!
“If only I could put you on a horse, Zikin, if you were agile,” the corporal joked about the thin soldier, bent over from the weight of his backpack.
“Take the club between your legs, and you’ll have a horse,” responded the hussar.
The rest of the infantry hurried across the bridge, forming a funnel at the entrance. Finally, all the carts passed, the crush became less, and the last battalion entered the bridge. Only the hussars of Denisov's squadron remained on the other side of the bridge against the enemy. The enemy, visible in the distance from the opposite mountain, from below, from the bridge, was not yet visible, since from the hollow along which the river flowed, the horizon ended at the opposite elevation no more than half a mile away. Ahead there was a desert, along which here and there groups of our traveling Cossacks were moving. Suddenly, on the opposite hill of the road, troops in blue hoods and artillery appeared. These were the French. The Cossack patrol trotted away downhill. All the officers and men of Denisov’s squadron, although they tried to talk about outsiders and look around, did not stop thinking only about what was there on the mountain, and constantly peered at the spots on the horizon, which they recognized as enemy troops. The weather cleared again in the afternoon, the sun set brightly over the Danube and the dark mountains surrounding it. It was quiet, and from that mountain the sounds of horns and screams of the enemy could occasionally be heard. There was no one between the squadron and the enemies, except for small patrols. An empty space, three hundred fathoms, separated them from him. The enemy stopped shooting, and the more clearly one felt that strict, menacing, impregnable and elusive line that separates the two enemy troops.
“One step beyond this line, reminiscent of the line separating the living from the dead, and - the unknown of suffering and death. And what's there? who's there? there, beyond this field, and the tree, and the roof illuminated by the sun? Nobody knows, and I want to know; and it’s scary to cross this line, and you want to cross it; and you know that sooner or later you will have to cross it and find out what is there on the other side of the line, just as it is inevitable to find out what is there on the other side of death. And he himself is strong, healthy, cheerful and irritated, and surrounded by such healthy and irritably animated people.” So, even if he doesn’t think, every person who is in sight of the enemy feels it, and this feeling gives a special shine and joyful sharpness of impressions to everything that happens in these minutes.
The smoke of a shot appeared on the enemy’s hill, and the cannonball, whistling, flew over the heads of the hussar squadron. The officers standing together went to their places. The hussars carefully began to straighten out their horses. Everything in the squadron fell silent. Everyone looked ahead at the enemy and at the squadron commander, waiting for a command. Another, third cannonball flew by. It is obvious that they were shooting at the hussars; but the cannonball, whistling evenly quickly, flew over the heads of the hussars and struck somewhere behind. The hussars did not look back, but at every sound of a flying cannonball, as if on command, the entire squadron with their monotonously varied faces, holding their breath while the cannonball flew, rose in their stirrups and fell again. The soldiers, without turning their heads, glanced sideways at each other, curiously looking for the impression of their comrade. On every face, from Denisov to the bugler, one common feature of struggle, irritation and excitement appeared near the lips and chin. The sergeant frowned, looking around at the soldiers, as if threatening punishment. Junker Mironov bent down with each pass of the cannonball. Rostov, standing on the left flank on his leg-touched but visible Grachik, had the happy look of a student summoned before a large audience for an exam in which he was confident that he would excel. He looked clearly and brightly at everyone, as if asking them to pay attention to how calmly he stood under the cannonballs. But in his face, too, the same feature of something new and stern, against his will, appeared near his mouth.
-Who is bowing there? Yunkeg "Mig"ons! Hexog, look at me! - Denisov shouted, unable to stand still and spinning on his horse in front of the squadron.
The snub-nosed and black-haired face of Vaska Denisov and his entire small, beaten figure with his sinewy (with short fingers covered with hair) hand, in which he held the hilt of a drawn saber, was exactly the same as always, especially in the evening, after drinking two bottles. He was only more red than usual and, raising his shaggy head up, like birds when they drink, mercilessly pressing spurs into the sides of the good Bedouin with his small feet, he, as if falling backwards, galloped to the other flank of the squadron and shouted in a hoarse voice to be examined pistols. He drove up to Kirsten. The headquarters captain, on a wide and sedate mare, rode at a pace towards Denisov. The staff captain, with his long mustache, was serious, as always, only his eyes sparkled more than usual.
- What? - he told Denisov, - it won’t come to a fight. You'll see, we'll go back.
“Who knows what they’re doing,” Denisov grumbled. “Ah! G” skeleton! - he shouted to the cadet, noticing his cheerful face. - Well, I waited.
And he smiled approvingly, apparently rejoicing at the cadet.
Rostov felt completely happy. At this time the chief appeared on the bridge. Denisov galloped towards him.
- Your Excellency! Let me attack! I will kill them.
“What kind of attacks are there,” said the chief in a bored voice, wincing as if from a bothersome fly. - And why are you standing here? You see, the flankers are retreating. Lead the squadron back.
The squadron crossed the bridge and escaped the gunfire without losing a single man. Following him, the second squadron, which was in the chain, crossed over, and the last Cossacks cleared that side.
Two squadrons of Pavlograd residents, having crossed the bridge, one after the other, went back to the mountain. Regimental commander Karl Bogdanovich Schubert drove up to Denisov's squadron and rode at a pace not far from Rostov, not paying any attention to him, despite the fact that after the previous clash over Telyanin, they now saw each other for the first time. Rostov, feeling himself at the front in the power of a man before whom he now considered himself guilty, did not take his eyes off the athletic back, blond nape and red neck of the regimental commander. It seemed to Rostov that Bogdanich was only pretending to be inattentive, and that his whole goal now was to test the cadet’s courage, and he straightened up and looked around cheerfully; then it seemed to him that Bogdanich was deliberately riding close to show Rostov his courage. Then he thought that his enemy would now deliberately send a squadron on a desperate attack to punish him, Rostov. It was thought that after the attack he would come up to him and generously extend the hand of reconciliation to him, the wounded man.
Familiar to the people of Pavlograd, with his shoulders raised high, the figure of Zherkov (he had recently left their regiment) approached the regimental commander. Zherkov, after his expulsion from the main headquarters, did not remain in the regiment, saying that he was not a fool to pull the strap at the front, when he was at headquarters, without doing anything, he would receive more awards, and he knew how to find a job as an orderly with Prince Bagration. He came to his former boss with orders from the commander of the rearguard.
“Colonel,” he said with his gloomy seriousness, turning to Rostov’s enemy and looking around at his comrades, “it was ordered to stop and light the bridge.”
- Who ordered? – the colonel asked gloomily.
“I don’t even know, colonel, who ordered it,” the cornet answered seriously, “but the prince ordered me: “Go and tell the colonel so that the hussars come back quickly and light the bridge.”
Following Zherkov, a retinue officer drove up to the hussar colonel with the same order. Following the retinue officer, fat Nesvitsky rode up on a Cossack horse, which was forcibly carrying him at a gallop.
Marcus Aurelius Antoninus was born on April 26, 121 AD. in the noble Roman family of Annius Vera and Domitia Lucilla. It is believed that his family is ancient and originates from Numa Pompilius. In the early years, the boy bore the name of his great-grandfather - Marcus Annius Catillius Severus. Soon his father died, Mark was adopted by his grandfather Annius Verus, and he took the name Mark Annius Verus.
By the will of his grandfather, Mark received his primary education at home from various teachers.
Emperor Hadrian noticed the boy's subtle, fair nature early on and patronized him; he also gave Mark the nickname Verissimon (“the truest and most truthful”). From an early age, Mark carried out various assignments given to him by Emperor Hadrian. At the age of six, he received the title of equestrian from Emperor Hadrian, which was an exceptional event. At the age of 8, he was a member of the college of Salii (priests of the god Mars), and from the age of 15-16 he was the organizer of Latin festivities throughout Rome and the manager of feasts hosted by Hadrian, and everywhere he showed himself at his best.
The emperor even wanted to appoint Mark as his direct heir, but this was impossible due to the youth of the chosen one. Then he appointed Antoninus Pius as his heir with the condition that he, in turn, transfer power to Mark. The laws of the ancient Roman tradition allowed the transfer of power not to physical heirs, but to those whom they considered their spiritual successors. Adopted by Antony Pius, Marcus Aurelius studied with many prominent philosophers, including the Stoic Apollonius. From the age of 18 he lived in the imperial palace. According to legend, many things pointed to the great future prepared for him. Subsequently, he remembered his teachers with deep love and gratitude and dedicated the first lines of his “Reflections” to them.
At the age of 19, Mark became consul. Initiated into many sacraments, the future emperor was distinguished by his simplicity and severity of character. Already in his youth, he often surprised his loved ones. He was very fond of the ancient Roman ritual traditions, and in his views and worldview he was close to the students of the Stoic school. He was also a brilliant orator and dialectician, an expert in civil law and jurisprudence.
In 145, his marriage to the daughter of Emperor Antoninus Pius Faustina was formalized. Mark abandoned further studies in rhetoric, devoting himself to philosophy.
In 161, Marcus Aurelius took charge of the Empire and responsibility for its future fate, sharing it with Caesar Lucius Veerus, also the adopted son of Antoninus Pius. In fact, very soon Mark alone began to bear the burden of caring for the empire. Lucius Verus showed weakness and left government affairs. At that time, Mark was about 40 years old. His wisdom and penchant for philosophy helped him successfully rule the empire.
Among the large-scale events that befell the emperor, one can name the elimination of the consequences of the flood due to the flood of the Tiber River, which killed many livestock and caused starvation of the population; participation and victory in the Parthian War, the Marcomannic War, military operations in Armenia, the German War and the fight against the pestilence - an epidemic that claimed the lives of thousands of people. Despite the constant shortage of funds, the philosopher-emperor performed funerals for the poor people who died from the epidemic at public expense. To avoid tax increases in the provinces to cover military expenses, he replenished the state treasury by holding a large auction to sell his art treasures. And without the funds to carry out the necessary military campaign, he sold and mortgaged everything that belonged to him personally and his family, including jewelry and clothing. The auction lasted about two months - so great were the riches that he did not regret parting with. When the funds were collected, the emperor and his army set out on a campaign and won a brilliant victory. The joy of the subjects and their love for the emperor were great that they were able to return to him a significant part of the wealth. Contemporaries characterized Marcus Aurelius as follows: “He was honest without inflexibility, modest without weakness, serious without gloominess.”
Marcus Aurelius always showed exceptional tact in all cases when it was necessary to keep people from evil or encourage them to do good. Realizing the importance of philosophy in the educational process, he established four departments in Athens - academic, peripatetic, stoic and epicurean. The professors of these departments were assigned state support. Not afraid of losing popularity, he changed the rules of gladiator fights, making them less cruel. Despite the fact that he had to suppress the uprisings that broke out every now and then on the outskirts of the empire, and repel numerous invasions of the barbarians, already eroding its power, Marcus Aurelius never lost his cool. According to the testimony of his adviser Timocrates, a cruel illness caused terrible suffering to the emperor, but he bravely endured it and, despite everything, had an incredible ability to work. During military campaigns, in campfires, sacrificing hours of night rest, he created true masterpieces of moral philosophy and metaphysics. 12 books of his memoirs, called “To Myself,” have been preserved. They are also known as Reflections.
While visiting the eastern provinces, where the rebellion broke out, in 176 his wife Faustina, who accompanied him, died. Despite all the bitter shortcomings of his wife, Marcus Aurelius was grateful to her for her patience and benevolence and called her “the mother of the camps.”
Death came to the philosopher-emperor on March 17, 180, during a military campaign in the vicinity of modern Vienna. Already ill, he was very sad that he was leaving behind his dissolute and cruel son, Commodus. Just before his death, Galen (the emperor’s doctor, who, despite the mortal danger, was with him until the last minute) heard from Marcus Aurelius: “It seems that today I will be left alone with myself,” after which a semblance of a smile touched his exhausted lips. Marcus Aurelius died with dignity and courage, as a warrior, philosopher and great sovereign.
Marcus Aurelius Antoninus (lat. Marcus Aurelius Antoninus). Born April 26, 121 in Rome - died March 17, 180 in Vindobona. Roman emperor (161-180) from the Antonine dynasty, philosopher, representative of late Stoicism, follower of Epictetus.
Marcus Annius Verus (later after the first adoption - Marcus Annius Catilius Severus, and after the second - Marcus Aelius Aurelius Verus Caesar), the son of Marcus Annius Verus and Domitia Lucilla, who went down in history under the name Marcus Aurelius, was born in Rome on April 26, 121 in the senatorial family of Spanish origin.
Marcus Aurelius's paternal grandfather (also Marcus Annius Verus) was a three-time consul (elected for the third time in 126).
Marcus Annius Verus was initially adopted by the third husband of Emperor Hadrian's mother, Domitia Lucilla Paulina, by Publius Catilius Severus (consul of 120) and became known as Marcus Annius Catilius Severus.
In 139, after the death of his adoptive father, he was adopted by Emperor Antoninus Pius and became known as Marcus Aelius Aurelius Verus Caesar.
The wife of Antoninus Pius - Annia Galeria Faustina (Faustina the Elder) - was the sister of Marcus Aurelius' father (and, accordingly, the aunt of Marcus Aurelius himself).
Marcus Aurelius received an excellent education. During the life of Emperor Hadrian, Marcus Aurelius, despite his young age, was appointed quaestor, and six months after the death of Hadrian, he assumed the position of quaestor (December 5, 138) and began to engage in administrative activities.
That same year he was engaged to Annia Galeria Faustina, daughter of Emperor Antoninus Pius, Hadrian's successor to the throne. From his marriage with her, Marcus Aurelius had children: Annius Aurelius Galerius Lucilla, Annius Aurelius Galerius Faustina, Aelia Antonina, Aelia Hadriana, Domitia Faustina, Fadilla, Cornificia, Commodus (future emperor), Titus Aurelius Fulvius Antonina, Aelia Aurelius, Marcus Annius Vera Caesar , Vibius Aurelius Sabinus. Most of Marcus Aurelius's children died in childhood; only Commodus, Lucilla, Faustina and Sabina survived to adulthood.
He was appointed consul by Antoninus Pius in 140 and declared Caesar. In 145 he was declared consul for the second time, together with Pius.
At the age of 25, Marcus Aurelius began to study philosophy; Marcus Aurelius's main mentor was Quintus Junius Rusticus. There is information about other philosophers summoned to Rome for him. The leader of Marcus Aurelius in the study of civil law was the famous lawyer Lucius Volusius Metianus.
On January 1, 161, Mark entered into his third consulate together with his adopted brother. In March of the same year, Emperor Antoninus Pius died and the joint reign of Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus began, lasting until the death of Lucius in January 169, after which Marcus Aurelius ruled alone.
Marcus Aurelius learned a lot from his adoptive father Antoninus Pius. Like him, Marcus Aurelius strongly emphasized his respect for the Senate as an institution and for the senators as members of this institution.
Marcus Aurelius paid great attention to legal proceedings. The general direction of his activity in the field of law: “he did not so much introduce innovations as restore ancient law.” In Athens, he established four departments of philosophy - for each of the philosophical movements dominant in his time - academic, peripatetic, stoic, epicurean. Professors were assigned state support. Just like under his predecessors, the institution of supporting children of low-income parents and orphans through the financing of so-called alimentary institutions was preserved.
Not having a warlike character, Aurelius had to participate in hostilities many times.
The Parthians invaded Roman territory immediately after the death of Antoninus Pius and defeated the Romans in two battles. The Roman Empire made peace with Parthia in 166, according to which Northern Mesopotamia went to the Empire, and Armenia was recognized as part of the sphere of Roman interests. That same year, Germanic tribes invaded Roman possessions on the Danube. The Marcomanni invaded the provinces of Pannonia, Noricum, Raetia and penetrated through the Alpine passes into Northern Italy as far as Aquileia. Additional military contingents were transferred to Northern Italy and Pannonia, including from the eastern front. Additional troops were recruited, including from gladiators and slaves. The co-emperors set out on a campaign against the barbarians. The war with the Germans and Sarmatians had not yet ended when unrest began in Northern Egypt (172).
In 178, Marcus Aurelius led a campaign against the Germans, and he achieved great success, but the Roman troops were overtaken by a plague epidemic. On March 17, 180, Marcus Aurelius died of the plague at Vindobona on the Danube (modern Vienna). After his death, Marcus Aurelius was officially deified. The time of his reign is considered a golden age in the ancient historical tradition. Marcus Aurelius is called the “philosopher on the throne.” He professed the principles of stoicism, and the main thing in his notes was ethical teaching, an assessment of life from the philosophical and moral side and advice on how to approach it.
Archpriest Pyotr Smirnov in his work “History of the Christian Church” writes: “A qualitative change in the nature of the persecution of Christian society took place under the emperor Marcus Aurelius Antoninus the Philosopher (161-180), the last outstanding representative of the Stoic school. If previously the government did not search for Christians, trying them only when they were brought to court and accused; now it itself begins to search for and persecute them. Marcus Aurelius, noticing the constant increase in Christian societies and fearing for the state religion and the integrity of the empire, tried by all means to support the domestic service of the gods among the people. In addition, as a philosopher-sovereign and, moreover, a Stoic, he looked at Christians. as misguided, stubborn fanatics, and hated them for their, in his opinion, superstitious teaching, especially for their ardent belief in a future life and holy animation when meeting death. Such a sovereign could not look indifferently at Christians, he thought. , superstitious and fanatics who do not understand the falsity of their beliefs and are still harmful to the state, then we must dissuade them, impart to them the correct beliefs so that they can be worthy members of the state, even if violence has to be used to achieve this goal. And so, Marcus Aurelius not only does not stop, like previous emperors, the usual popular indignations against Christians, but even himself issues a “new edict” regarding them, different from the edicts of previous times. Now it was ordered to look for Christians, convince them to renounce their errors, and if they remain adamant, subject them to torture, which should be stopped only when they renounce their errors and bring worship to the gods. Thus, the persecution of Christians under Marcus Aurelius was very cruel. During this persecution, Christians declared themselves especially zealous for the faith; Never in previous persecutions were there so many martyrs as now. Saint Justin the Philosopher, who founded a Christian school in Rome, died there as a martyr in 166 along with his students.".
Marcus Aurelius left philosophical records - 12 "books" written in Greek, which are usually given the general title "Discourses on Self." The philosophy teacher of Marcus Aurelius was Maximus Claudius.
As a representative of late Stoicism, Marcus Aurelius pays the greatest attention to ethics in his philosophy, and the remaining sections of philosophy serve propaedeutic purposes.
The previous tradition of Stoicism distinguished in man a body and a soul, which is pneuma. Marcus Aurelius sees three principles in man, adding to the soul (or pneuma) and body (or flesh) the intellect (or reason, or nous). If the former Stoics considered the soul-pneuma the dominant principle, then Marcus Aurelius calls reason the leading principle. Reason nous represents an inexhaustible source of impulses necessary for a worthy human life. You need to bring your mind into harmony with the nature of the whole and thereby achieve dispassion. Happiness lies in harmony with universal reason.
The only work of Marcus Aurelius is a philosophical diary consisting of separate discussions in 12 books “To Himself” (ancient Greek: Εἰς ἑαυτόν). It is a monument of moralistic literature.
Marcus Aurelius is called the great emperor of Rome, who ended the “golden age” of the ancient empire (this period dates chronologically from 96-180 AD). After the ruler died, the ancient state gradually began to fade, the power and greatness of which kept half the world in obedience.
The works and quotes of the emperor that have survived to this day are considered classics of Roman philosophy. Many of the sayings of Marcus Aurelius have received a “second life” in the 21st century, having been included in anthologies of textbooks and works on philosophy.
Family and early years of life
The future Emperor of Rome was born in 121 into the family of Domitia Lucilla and Annius Verus, who was a representative of the ancient Italian family of Annius Verus. Many of the members of this clan considered themselves direct descendants of King Numa Pompilius (715-633/633 BC). The clan was recognized as patrician only many, many centuries later, when Emperor Vespasian ascended the throne. This happened in 79 AD. Under him, the list of patricians of Rome was updated by including many noble families, including the Anniev Verov.
At birth, the boy received a family name - Mark Annius Verus. His own father died shortly after Mark was born, and the child was adopted by Publius Catilius Severus, which is why the boy’s name was changed to Mark Annius Catilius Severus.
The child's family was noble and was constantly at the imperial court. Therefore, it is not surprising that the ruler of Rome himself, Adrian, drew attention to Mark. It was he who noted the baby’s unusual abilities and his thirst for knowledge and science. The emperor ordered the boy to be sent to school, where the best teachers of that time taught. Thus, Adrian paid his debt to the memory of Publius Catilius Severus, who died in 139. After this, two outstanding people of ancient Rome took up his upbringing - the emperor and the boy’s grandfather, Annius Verus. Having discussed the future fate of his grandson with the ruler of the empire, the grandfather chose a new adoptive father for the child. This was Antonin Pius, who soon became the ruler of Rome. His wife was the sister of Mark’s own father. The choice of his adoptive father was not accidental - both Adrian, his grandfather, and Antoninus Pius prepared the boy to soon take up a government position. In ancient Rome, this could only be done with knowledge and power. The latter was transmitted exclusively by inheritance from father to son. Roman legislation allowed citizens to make not only their own sons, but also adopted sons as their heirs. Therefore, statesmen often chose a worthy successor, adopted him and trained him accordingly, in order to later make him the heir to his fortune and position. This is exactly what happened to young Marcus Aurelius.
At the age of 6, Adrian decided to give Mark the title of horseman, at the same time changing his name to Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Verus. In order to test the boy's abilities, the emperor gave the child many tasks every day, which he always completed.
At the age of eight, Mark was included in a special college of priests - the Salii, who served Mars. When the pupil of the emperor and Antoninus Pius reached the age of 16, he was appointed to the position of organizer and manager of Latin holidays, feasts and events, at which Emperor Hadrian was invariably present. Already at such a young age, Mark showed those qualities that would later make him a truly great emperor: love of truth, honesty and justice. Therefore, his surname - “Ver” - was slightly changed by friends and teachers to “Verissimus”, which translated from Latin meant “most just”.
Growing up and government work
A huge influence on the formation of the character of Marcus Aurelius was had by his relationship with Antoninus Pius, whom the young man called his teacher, mentor and father. In his works, the future emperor repeatedly noted that his adoptive father taught him how to lead the life of an ordinary person. Thanks to Pius, Mark was responsible for his duties, the activities of the ruler and public service.
Mark's education in his youth took place at the emperor's palace, where his teachers were famous philosophers of that time. In particular, Apollonius from Chalcedon, a supporter of the Stoic movement, and Junius Rusticus, a follower of the ideas of Plato. This environment made Mark an adherent of Stoic philosophy. Under the influence of his brilliant teachers, the future emperor chose the motto of his entire subsequent life: “Teach not with words, but with your own example.”
The boy paid special attention to classes in civil law, which were taught to him by Lucius Volusius Metianus (an outstanding lawyer of that time). The young man grew up committed to justice, patience, and hard work. He did not like pomp and luxury, believing that even without them he could serve his native state well. The young man considered his idols to be the great Roman rulers - Nerva and Trajan, as well as Hadrian. Marcus Aurelius also sacredly revered ancient Roman rituals and traditions.
Already at a young age, those around Mark became famous for his extraordinary oratorical abilities. Those around him listened to him with bated breath and believing every word. He also differed from young men of his age and position in that his words had deep meaning and significance.
The government career of Marcus Aurelius began in 138. Before becoming sole emperor, he held the following positions:
- Quaestor, where he was engaged in administrative work (138);
- Consul (140, 145);
- Tribune with proconsular powers, which extended beyond Rome (147). A few years later, Anthony elevated his son-in-law to the rank of co-emperor. Not a single decision was made by Pius without the consent of Mark;
- Consul again. This time he ruled together with his adopted brother (161). At the same time, Pius announced that Mark would become his successor on the throne;
- Emperor together with his half-brother Lucius Verus (161-169).
Independent rule
In 169, Lucius Verus died, after which Marcus Aurelius was proclaimed emperor of the Roman state. But in fact all power was in his hands from 161, since the co-ruler was not distinguished by talent and did not show any interest in the internal and external problems of the country.
Evidence from that time suggests that Marcus Aurelius won the love of the population due to his wisdom and prudence in decision-making. And this despite the fact that serious problems began in the empire - the population of Parthia and Egypt rebelled, the plague spread, and wars and civil strife depleted the state treasury.
Marcus Aurelius solved most of these difficulties using his own finances and inheritance.
During his reign the following events and reforms were carried out:
- Legal proceedings have been streamlined, many ancient rights and customs have been restored;
- Many laws and decrees were published to improve the lives of the common Roman people. This responsibility for the lives of citizens and caring for them made Marcus Aurelius popular among the inhabitants of Rome;
- Institutions were created to care for the sick and those injured;
- The taxation system was improved, and the largest contributions to the treasury were made by the nobility. With the money received, special shelters were opened for the poor, needy and orphans;
- Colleges were founded;
- Four philosophical departments were created in the city of Athens. Each of the departments represented one of the main ancient philosophical movements: Stoic, Academic, Epicurean, Peripatetic. All professors working in departments received salaries from the state treasury;
- Mandatory registration of newborn children was introduced;
- A morality police was created;
- The prestige of the Senate strengthened;
- Before performances, all gladiators were now armed only with blunt swords, and for tightrope walkers special insurance was created in the form of mattresses, which were supposed to protect them in case of a fall from a height.
Since 167, Rome began to constantly encounter barbarian tribes - the Sarmatians and Germans. The fight against them was led personally by the emperor. Only by 175 was peace signed, as a result of which the ancient Germans began to settle in the territories occupied by Roman garrisons.
That same year, the population of Syria rebelled again, where the local ruler, Avilius Cassius, declared himself the new Roman ruler. It was he who spread the rumor for three months that Marcus Aurelius had died. Cassius was killed by his accomplices, after which the emperor solemnly toured the eastern provinces of the state. He began his journey in Alexandria, from there he moved to Syria, then to Cappadocia and Smyrna, and ended his journey in Greece.
From 176 until the end of his days, the co-ruler of Marcus Aurerius was his son Commodus. The last years of the life of the sovereign of Great Rome were not calm. He constantly fought with the Germans and pacified the Syrians. In 180, he and his army reached the center of modern Austria (where Vienna is now located), and died immediately.
At the same time, Marcus Aurelius was a fairly peace-loving emperor when compared with his predecessors. Of the 21 years of independent rule, he spent 14 on military campaigns, defending Rome and its citizens.
Immediately after his death, the emperor was elevated to the rank of deity, and a temple was built in his honor. In Rome, a huge (30 meters high) column decorated with bas-reliefs was installed. The images told about the exploits of the emperor, his campaigns and wars. And on Capitol Hill they erected an equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius, which still stands there today.
Family and Children
Anthony Pius also controlled Mark’s personal life, so he did not allow his adopted son to marry a girl named Ceionia. Instead, he was betrothed to Pius' daughter Faustina. The young people got married in 145.
Faustina turned out to be an unfaithful wife, and began to cheat on her husband a few years after the wedding. Historians believe that this was due to the constant employment of Marcus Aurelius in government positions and on campaigns. The emperor's wife was seen in company with theater actors, sailors, tavern regulars, and gladiators. Rumors about his wife’s adventures reached Marcus Aurelius, but he did not dare to dissolve the marriage, which was blessed by his beloved adoptive father.
This behavior of Faustina did not turn her husband away from her. He continued to read poetry to her, took her on almost all trips, and loved her.
Faustina died during a campaign in one of the provinces of the empire. This loss crippled the ruler; he grieved for a long time for the “mother of the camps,” as Marcus Aurelius called his wife.
The couple had 13 children together, but only their son Commodus, who succeeded his father, and four daughters survived.
The first daughter was born in 147 and was named Annia. In honor of this event, the then Emperor Antony Pius elevated his adopted son to the rank of tribune. The girl lived until she was 165 years old.
The emperor's other children were named:
- Gemellus Lucius and Anna Aurelia Lussilla (twins), the boy died in 150, and the girl married Lucius's father's co-ruler Verus (died 182);
- Titus Aelius Antoninus, Titus Aelius Aurelius and Domitia Faustina (born after 150, died approximately 161);
- Adrianus (152-157);
- Annia Aurelia (159 - approximately 211);
- Annia Cornifia (160 - approximately 211);
- Titus Aurelius Fulvus (161-165), twin of Commodus;
- Lucius Aurelius Commodus (161-192);
- Marcus Annius (162-169);
- Vibia Aurelia Sabina (170-217).
The successor of Marcus Aurelius - his son Commodus - went down in the history of the world and Rome as a rude and ignorant ruler. His father surrounded him with philosophers and poets, teachers of ethics and morality, but this did not help. Commodus preferred the company of circus actors, gladiators, and mimes. Perhaps it was the influence of genes, since there were rumors that the mother gave birth to Commodus and his brother from one of the gladiators.