The work of the great English playwright William Shakespeare is usually divided into three or four periods (some researchers consider the period 1590–1600 as one, others divide it into two: 1590–1594, 1595–1600).
· During the first period (1590–1600), Shakespeare was formed as a playwright, a set of ideas was formed that he would touch upon throughout his creative activity, and the foundations of his style were laid. In the works of this period one can still feel the influence of his talented contemporaries, primarily T. Kyd and C. Marlowe. Most of them are written in the genre of historical chronicle and comedy. The early tragedy Titus Andronicus largely follows the aesthetics of the so-called “bloody tragedy,” while Romeo and Juliet already testifies to the maturity of the playwright’s talent. At the same time, in its worldview, this tragedy differs significantly from more later works this genre, affirming the greatness of love as a force capable of transforming the world. Despite the death of the heroes, it is imbued with tragic optimism.
The heroes of most works of this period are young and charming, and the plays themselves are full of optimism and faith in people; they glorify humanistic values.
Historical chronicles can be called an English saga, revealing the turbulent events of the country's history over several centuries - from the era of King John to the time immediately preceding the era of Shakespeare. Although he doesn't always adhere historical facts(for example, in “Richard III”), the playwright manages to create an accurate atmosphere of the time, show the balance of forces and their confrontation that determined the history of the country, and create a broad social background. As Shakespeare's talent matures, the psychological depth of the characters, their complexity and inconsistency increases, which was manifested with great force in the image of Richard Gloucester, who became Richard III. At the same time, there is a search for an ideal monarch, and he appears in the image of Henry V in the play of the same name, who does everything to ensure that England finally becomes a unified state that has overcome feudal fragmentation and civil strife, destructive for the country (“Richard II”, “King John”) .
The world of Shakespearean comedies of the 1590s. harmonious and cheerful. We are present at a celebration of life, which is presented as a bright masquerade. A lot of funny adventures happen to the heroes, sometimes they even find themselves in difficult situations, but as a result, everything always ends well. This is a world sparkling with humor of kind and generous people who know how to enjoy life, despite its contradictions. Good must certainly win.
1590–1594 – early chronicles: “Henry VI”, part 2 (1590), “Henry VI”, part 3 (1591), “Henry VI”, part 1 (1592), “Richard III” (1593); early comedies: The Comedy of Errors (1592), The Taming of the Shrew (1593); early tragedy Titus Andronicus (1594).
1595–1600 – chronicles: “Richard II” (1595), “King John” (1596), “Henry IV”, part 1 (1597), “Henry IV”, part 2 (1598), “Henry V” (1598) ; comedies: “The Two Gentlemen of Verona” (1594), “Love’s Labour’s Lost” (1594), “A Midsummer Night’s Dream” (1596), “The Merchant of Venice” (1596), “Much Ado About Nothing” (1598), “The Merry Wives of Windsor” "(1598), "As You Like It" (1599), "Twelfth Night" (1600); tragedies: “Romeo and Juliet” (1595), “Julius Caesar” (1599).
· The second period (1600–1609) in Shakespeare’s work is painted in tragic tones. A turning point in Shakespeare’s worldview is already evident in the comedy “As You Like It” and the tragedy “Julius Caesar,” dating back to 1599. Symptoms of crisis are brewing in English society, expressed in the uprising of the Earl of Essex, its bloody suppression, peasant riots and aggravation of class contradictions, which in just a few decades will lead to the English bourgeois revolution. Among the rebels was the Earl of Southampton, to whom, according to many researchers, Shakespeare’s sonnets, as well as the poems “Venus and Adonis” (1593) and “Lucretia” (1594), are dedicated. All this could not pass by Shakespeare. Four great tragedies appear one after another: “Hamlet” (1601), “Othello” (1604), “King Lear” (1605), “Macbeth” (1606), indicating a turning point in the worldview of the great playwright. The hopes of creating a harmonious world, which were cherished by humanists, were dispelled, and this world itself turned out to be a utopia. As Hamlet, whom critics call a “reflective hero,” bitterly states, “the connection of times has broken down” (in another translation, “the age is dislocated”), and whoever tries to connect the broken links will face a tragic fate. The death of heroes is inevitable because it is the price that must be paid for the possibility of change in a rotten society. This is the atoning sacrifice that must be made for the sake of the future. The great translator of Hamlet into Russian B.L. Pasternak wrote that Hamlet is “a drama of a high lot, a commanded feat, an entrusted destiny.” It is hardly a coincidence that the first poem that opens the poems of Yuri Zhivago in famous novel B.L. Pasternak, there was Hamlet.
The hum died down. I went on stage.
Leaning against the door frame,
What will happen in my lifetime.
The darkness of the night is pointed at me
A thousand binoculars on the axis.
If possible, Abba Father,
Carry this cup past.
I love your stubborn plan
And I agree to play this role.
But now there is another drama,
And this time fire me.
But the order of actions has been thought out,
And the end of the road is inevitable.
I am alone, everything is drowning in pharisaism.
Living life is not a field to cross.
The “Roman” plays “Coriolanus” and “Antony and Cleopatra” are also full of tragedy. Even comedies written during this period have a tragic connotation and no longer carry the cheerful charge that marked the comedies of the 1590s. It’s not for nothing that they are called “dark” or “drug” comedies. The sonnets, published in a pirated edition in 1609, adjoin the same period. They represent the pinnacle achievement of English poetry both in the depth of philosophical understanding of reality and in artistic power. Some of them echo both thematically and stylistically with “great” tragedies and are also colored by a tragic worldview (compare Hamlet’s monologue “To be or not to be” and sonnet 66; the 127th sonnet makes one think of “Othello”). All 154 sonnets form two sonnet cycles, unequal in volume, addressed to a friend and a “dark lady,” united by a lyrical hero who amazes with the richness of his inner world and the depth of his experiences.
1601–1608 – tragedies: “Hamlet” (1601), “Othello” (1604), “King Lear” (1605), “Macbeth”; ancient tragedies: “Antony and Cleopatra” (1606), “Coriolanus” (1607), “Timon of Athens” (1608); comedies: “Troilus and Cressida” (1602), “The end is the crown of the matter” (1603), “Measure for measure” (1604).
· The third period (1609–1612) is the shortest in Shakespeare’s work: it lasts only four years. In 1613, the playwright returned to Stratford-upon-Avon and stopped his creative activity. At this time, only four plays were published from his pen. In collaboration (probably with J. Fletcher), he wrote the historical chronicle “Henry VIII,” which is not one of Shakespeare’s significant works. Later plays written in the genre of romantic tragicomedy, in which fairy-tale and fantastic elements appear, which is especially typical for “The Tempest”, in which obvious Baroque features appear. The author accepts the tragedy of life, in which the dark and the light are in constant struggle, but good ultimately defeats evil.
According to Shakespeare researcher Prof. A. Aniksta, “Shakespeare brought important new artistic principles to drama, which had never existed in art before him. The characters of the heroes in ancient drama had only one important feature. Shakespeare created heroes and heroines endowed with the traits of a spiritually rich living personality. At the same time, he showed the characters of his characters in development. These artistic innovations enriched not only art, but also the understanding of human nature."
2.1. Answer the questions.
What stages is Shakespeare's work divided into? Which stage was the most fruitful from a quantitative point of view? Which stage was the most philosophically intense? What are the reasons for the changes in the playwright’s worldview at the turn of the century? How it ends creative activity Shakespeare? How can we explain Shakespeare's extraordinary popularity during the Elizabethan era?
What is Shakespeare's contribution to the development of world theater? How would you explain Shakespeare’s formula “All the world is a stage, and the people in it are actors”? What laws apply in the theater? Do they differ from the laws in force in the world? How do Shakespeare's works differ from the texts on which he based them? What explains the synthetic nature of the work of the great playwright?
What is the main theme in Shakespeare's historical chronicles? What is the main conflict of the chronicles? How is history dramatized by Shakespeare? Is historical accuracy essential for a playwright? Who personifies the humanistic ideal of a ruler in Shakespeare's chronicles? How can we explain Shakespeare's use of themes from ancient Greek and Roman history?
What is unique about Shakespeare's comedies? Is there a difference in attitude in the comedies of Shakespeare's first and second periods?
What is the source of tragic suffering in Shakespeare's tragedies? Who is Shakespeare's ideal man (“he whose blood and mind are so joyfully mingled” - Hamlet)? Is such a person possible in principle? What is the reason for the change in personality of the tragic hero? How does the nature of the action change in Shakespeare's tragedies of the second period compared to the previous stage (for example, with the tragedy of Romeo and Juliet)? What role do moral categories play in the development of the action and characters of the heroes of tragedies?
How are the works of Shakespeare of the last period different? What way out does Shakespeare find from the tragic circle of the previous period? Why is this period called romantic in the playwright’s work? What is the reason for the appearance of such a powerful fantastic layer in the plays of this period? What is the main theme of The Tempest?
How do you explain the emergence of the so-called “Shakespearean question”? What contemporary evidence do we have about Shakespeare’s work?
The theme of almost all of Shakespeare's comedies is love, its emergence and development, the resistance and intrigues of others and the victory of a bright young feeling. The action of the works takes place against the backdrop of beautiful landscapes, bathed in moonlight or sunlight. This is how the magical world of Shakespeare's comedies appears before us, seemingly far from fun. Shakespeare has a great ability to talentedly combine the comic (the duels of wit between Benedick and Beatrice in Much Ado About Nothing, Petruchio and Catharina from The Taming of the Shrew) with the lyrical and even tragic (the betrayals of Proteus in The Two Gentlemen of Verona, the machinations of Shylock in "The Merchant of Venice"). Shakespeare's characters are amazingly multifaceted; their images embody traits characteristic of people of the Renaissance: will, desire for independence, and love of life. The female characters of these comedies are especially interesting - they are equal to men, free, energetic, active and infinitely charming. Shakespeare's comedies are varied. Shakespeare uses various genres of comedy - romantic comedy (A Midsummer Night's Dream), comedy of characters (The Taming of the Shrew), sitcom (The Comedy of Errors).
During the same period (1590-1600) Shakespeare wrote a number of historical chronicles. Each of which covers one of the periods English history.
About the time of the struggle between the Scarlet and White Roses:
About the previous period of struggle between the feudal barons and the absolute monarchy:
The genre of dramatic chronicle is characteristic only of the English Renaissance. Most likely, this happened because the favorite theatrical genre of the early English Middle Ages were mysteries with secular motives. The dramaturgy of the mature Renaissance was formed under their influence; and in dramatic chronicles many mysterious features are preserved: a wide coverage of events, many characters, a free alternation of episodes. However, unlike the mysteries, the chronicles do not present biblical history, but the history of the state. Here, in essence, he also turns to the ideals of harmony - but specifically state harmony, which he sees in the victory of the monarchy over medieval feudal civil strife. At the end of the plays, good triumphs; evil, no matter how terrible and bloody its path was, has been overthrown. Thus, in the first period of Shakespeare's work different levels- personal and state - the main Renaissance idea is interpreted: achieving harmony and humanistic ideals.
During the same period, Shakespeare wrote two tragedies:
II (tragic) period (1601-1607)
It is considered the tragic period of Shakespeare's work. Dedicated mainly to tragedy. It was during this period that the playwright reached the pinnacle of his creativity:
There is no longer a trace of a harmonious sense of the world in them; eternal and insoluble conflicts are revealed here. Here the tragedy lies not only in the clash between the individual and society, but also in the internal contradictions in the soul of the hero. The problem is brought to a general philosophical level, and the characters remain unusually multifaceted and psychologically voluminous. At the same time, it is very important that in Shakespeare’s great tragedies there is a complete absence of a fatalistic attitude towards fate, which predetermines tragedy. The main emphasis, as before, is placed on the personality of the hero, who shapes his own destiny and the destinies of those around him.
During the same period, Shakespeare wrote two comedies:
III (romantic) period (1608-1612)
It is considered the romantic period of Shakespeare's work.
Works of the last period of his work:
These are poetic tales that lead away from reality into the world of dreams. A complete conscious rejection of realism and a retreat into romantic fantasy is naturally interpreted by Shakespeare scholars as the playwright’s disappointment in humanistic ideals and recognition of the impossibility of achieving harmony. This path - from a triumphantly jubilant faith in harmony to tired disappointment - was actually followed by the entire worldview of the Renaissance.
Shakespeare's Globe Theater
The incomparable worldwide popularity of Shakespeare's plays was facilitated by the playwright's excellent knowledge of the theater from the inside. Almost all of Shakespeare's London life was in one way or another connected with the theater, and from 1599 - with the Globe Theater, which was one of the most important centers of cultural life in England. It was here that R. Burbage’s troupe of “The Lord Chamberlain’s Men” moved into the newly rebuilt building, just at the time when Shakespeare became one of the shareholders of the troupe. Shakespeare played on stage until about 1603 - in any case, after this time there is no mention of his participation in performances. Apparently, Shakespeare was not particularly popular as an actor - there is information that he played minor and episodic roles. Nevertheless, he completed stage school - working on stage undoubtedly helped Shakespeare more accurately understand the mechanisms of interaction between the actor and the audience and the secrets of audience success. Audience success was very important for Shakespeare both as a theater shareholder and as a playwright - and after 1603 he remained closely associated with the Globe, on whose stage almost all the plays he wrote were staged. The design of the Globus hall predetermined the combination of spectators from a variety of social and property classes at one performance, while the theater could accommodate at least 1,500 spectators. The playwright and actors faced the most difficult task of holding the attention of a diverse audience. Shakespeare's plays met this task to the maximum extent, enjoying success with audiences of all categories.
The mobile architectonics of Shakespeare's plays were largely determined by the peculiarities of theatrical technology of the 16th century. - an open stage without a curtain, a minimum of props, extremely conventional stage design. This forced us to concentrate on the actor and his stagecraft. Each role in Shakespeare's plays (often written for a specific actor) is psychologically voluminous and provides enormous opportunities for its stage interpretation; the lexical structure of speech changes not only from play to play and from character to character, but also transforms depending on internal development and stage circumstances (Hamlet, Othello, Richard III, etc.). It is not without reason that many world-famous actors shone in the roles of Shakespeare’s repertoire.
The glorious history of Shakespeare's Globe Theater began in 1599, when in London, which was distinguished great love To theater arts, one after another, public theater buildings were built. During the construction of the Globe, building materials were used that were left over from the dismantled building of the very first public theater in London (it was called “Theatre”). The owners of the building, a troupe of famous English actors, the Burbages, had their land lease expired; So they decided to rebuild the theater in a new location. The leading playwright of the troupe, William Shakespeare, who by 1599 had become one of the shareholders of Burbage's "Lord Chamberlain's Men" theater, was undoubtedly involved in this decision.
Theaters for the general public were built in London mainly outside the City, i.e. - outside the jurisdiction of the City of London. This was explained by the puritanical spirit of the city authorities, who were hostile to the theater in general. The Globe was a typical public theater building of the early 17th century: an oval room in the shape of a Roman amphitheater, enclosed by a high wall, without a roof. The theater got its name from the statue of Atlas supporting the globe that adorned its entrance. This globe (“globe”) was surrounded by a ribbon with the famous inscription: “The whole world is acting” (lat. Totus mundus agit histrionem; better known translation: “The whole world is a theater”).
The stage was adjacent to the back of the building; above its deep part rose the upper stage platform, the so-called. "gallery"; even higher there was a “house” - a building with one or two windows. Thus, there were four places of action in the theater: the proscenium, which jutted deep into the hall and was surrounded by the public on three sides, on which the main part of the action was played out; the deep part of the stage under the gallery, where interior scenes were played out; a gallery that was used to depict a fortress wall or balcony (the ghost of Hamlet's father appeared here or the famous scene on the balcony in Romeo and Juliet took place); and a “house”, in the windows of which actors could also appear. This made it possible to build a dynamic spectacle, incorporating various locations of action into the dramaturgy and changing points of audience attention, which helped maintain interest in what was happening on the set. This was extremely important: we must not forget that the attention of the auditorium was not supported by any auxiliary means - the performances were performed in daylight, without a curtain, under the continuous roar of the audience, animatedly exchanging impressions in full voice.
The Globe auditorium accommodated, according to various sources, from 1200 to 3000 spectators. It is impossible to establish the exact capacity of the hall - there were no seats provided for the bulk of commoners; They were crowded into the stalls, standing on the dirt floor. Privileged spectators were accommodated with some comforts: along the inner side of the wall there were boxes for the aristocracy, above them there was a gallery for the wealthy. The richest and most noble sat on the sides of the stage, on portable three-legged stools. There were no additional amenities for spectators (including toilets); physiological needs, if necessary, were easily met during the performance - right in the auditorium. Therefore, the absence of a roof could be regarded more as a benefit than as a disadvantage - the influx of fresh air did not allow devoted fans of theatrical art to suffocate.
However, such simplicity of morals fully corresponded to the rules of etiquette of that time, and the Globus Theater very soon became one of the main cultural centers England: all the plays of William Shakespeare and other outstanding playwrights of the Renaissance were staged on its stage.
However, in 1613, during the premiere of Shakespeare's Henry VIII, a fire broke out in the theater: a spark from a stage cannon shot hit the thatched roof above the back of the stage. Historical evidence states that there were no casualties in the fire, but the building burned to the ground. The end of the “first Globe” symbolically marked a change in literary and theatrical eras: around this time, William Shakespeare stopped writing plays.
Letter about the fire at Globus
"And now I will entertain you with the story of what happened this week at Bankside. His Majesty's actors played new play entitled "All is True" (Henry VIII), representing the main points of the reign of Henry VIII. The production was decorated with extraordinary pomp, and even the stage covering was amazingly beautiful. Knights of the Order of George and the Garter, guards in embroidered uniforms and so on - everything was more than enough to make greatness recognizable, if not ridiculous. So, King Henry arranges a mask in the house of Cardinal Wolsey: he appears on stage, several shots of welcome are heard. One of the bullets apparently got stuck in the scenery - and then everything happened. At first, only a small smoke was visible, to which the audience, captivated by what was happening on stage, did not pay any attention; but after a split second the fire spread to the roof and began to spread rapidly, destroying the entire building to the ground in less than an hour. Yes, those were disastrous moments for this solid building, where only wood, straw and a few rags burned. True, one of the men’s trousers caught fire, and he could easily have been fried, but he (thank heavens!) guessed in time to put out the flames with ale from a bottle.”
Sir Henry Wotton
Soon the building was rebuilt, this time from stone; the thatched ceiling above the deep part of the stage was replaced with tiles. Burbage's troupe continued to play at the "second Globe" until 1642, when the Puritan Parliament and Lord Protector Cromwell issued a decree closing all theaters and prohibiting all theatrical entertainment. In 1644, the empty “second Globe” was rebuilt into premises for rent. The history of the theater was interrupted for more than three centuries.
The idea of a modern reconstruction of the Globe Theater belongs, oddly enough, not to the British, but to the American actor, director and producer Sam Wanamaker. He came to London for the first time in 1949, and for about twenty years, together with his like-minded people, he collected materials about the theaters of the Elizabethan era bit by bit. By 1970, Wanamaker had founded the Shakespeare Globe Trust to rebuild the lost theater and create an educational center and permanent exhibition space. Work on this project continued for more than 25 years; Wanamaker himself died in 1993, almost four years before the opening of the reconstructed Globe. The guideline for the reconstruction of the theater was the excavated fragments of the foundation of the old Globe, as well as the nearby Rose Theater, where Shakespeare’s plays were staged in “pre-Globe” times. The new building was built from green oak wood, processed in accordance with the traditions of the 16th century. and is located almost in the same place as before - the new one is 300 meters away from the old Globus. Careful reconstruction appearance combined with modern technical equipment of the building.
The new Globe opened in 1997 under the name Shakespeare's Globe Theatre. Since, according to historical realities, the new building was built without a roof, performances are held in it only in spring and summer. However, tours of London's oldest theater, the Globe, are conducted daily. Already in this century A theme park museum dedicated to Shakespeare has opened next to the restored Globe. It houses the world's largest exhibition dedicated to the great playwright; A variety of themed entertainment events are organized for visitors: here you can try to write a sonnet yourself; watch a sword fight, and even take part in a production of a Shakespeare play.
Shakespeare's language and stage devices
In general, the language of Shakespeare's dramatic works is unusually rich: according to research by philologists and literary scholars, his vocabulary contains more than 15,000 words. The characters' speech is replete with all sorts of tropes - metaphors, allegories, periphrases, etc. The playwright used many forms of 16th-century lyric poetry in his plays. - sonnet, canzone, album, epithalam, etc. Blank verse, which is mainly used to write his plays, is flexible and natural. This explains the enormous appeal of Shakespeare's work for translators. In particular, in Russia, many masters of literary text turned to translations of Shakespeare's plays - from N. Karamzin to A. Radlova, V. Nabokov, B. Pasternak, M. Donskoy and others.
Minimalism stage aids The Renaissance allowed Shakespeare's dramaturgy to organically merge into new stage development of world theater, dating back to the beginning of the 20th century. - director's theater, focused not on individual actor's work, but on the overall conceptual solution of the performance. It is impossible to even list the general principles of all numerous Shakespearean productions - from detailed everyday interpretation to extreme conditional symbolic; from farcical-comedy to elegiac-philosophical or mystery-tragedy. It is curious that Shakespeare's plays are still aimed at audiences of almost any level - from aesthetic intellectuals to undemanding audiences. This, along with the complex philosophical issues, is facilitated by the intricate intrigue, and the kaleidoscope of various stage episodes, alternating pathetic scenes with comedic ones, and the inclusion of fights, musical numbers, etc. in the main action.
Shakespeare's dramatic works became the basis for many performances musical theater(operas Othello, Falstaff (based on The Merry Wives of Windsor) and Macbeth by D. Verdi; ballet Romeo and Juliet by S. Prokofiev and many others).
Shakespeare's departure
Around 1610 Shakespeare left London and returned to Stratford-upon-Avon. Until 1612 he did not lose touch with the theater: in 1611 it was written Winter's Tale, in 1612 - the last dramatic work, The Tempest. Last years retired from life literary activity, and lived quietly and unnoticed with his family. This was probably due to a serious illness - this is indicated by Shakespeare's surviving will, clearly drawn up hastily on March 15, 1616 and signed in a changed handwriting. On April 23, 1616, the most famous playwright of all times died in Stratford-upon-Avon.
The influence of Shakespeare's work on world literature
The influence of the images created by William Shakespeare on world literature and culture is difficult to overestimate. Hamlet, Macbeth, King Lear, Romeo and Juliet - these names have long become household names. They are used not only in works of art, but also in ordinary speech as a designation of some human type. For us, Othello is a jealous person, Lear is a parent deprived of the heirs whom he himself blessed, Macbeth is a usurper of power, and Hamlet is a person torn apart by internal contradictions.
Shakespeare's images had a huge influence on Russian literature of the 19th century century. The plays of the English playwright were addressed to I.S. Turgenev, F.M. Dostoevsky, L.N. Tolstoy, A.P. Chekhov and other writers. In the 20th century, interest in inner world people and the motives and heroes of Shakespeare's works again worried poets. We find them in M. Tsvetaeva, B. Pasternak, V. Vysotsky.
In the era of classicism and the Enlightenment, Shakespeare was recognized for his ability to follow “nature,” but was condemned for ignorance of the “rules”: Voltaire called him a “brilliant barbarian.” English educational criticism valued Shakespeare's life-like truthfulness. In Germany, Shakespeare was raised to an unattainable height by J. Herder and Goethe (Goethe’s sketch “Shakespeare and the End of Him,” 1813-1816). During the period of romanticism, understanding of Shakespeare’s work was deepened by G. Hegel, S. T. Coleridge, Stendhal, and V. Hugo.
In Russia, Shakespeare was first mentioned in 1748 by A.P. Sumarokov, however, even in the 2nd half of the 18th century, Shakespeare was still little known in Russia. Shakespeare became a fact of Russian culture in the 1st half of the 19th century: writers associated with the Decembrist movement (V.K. Kuchelbecker, K.F. Ryleev, A.S. Griboedov, A.A. Bestuzhev, etc.) turned to him. , A. S. Pushkin, who saw the main advantages of Shakespeare in his objectivity, truth of characters and “true depiction of time” and developed the traditions of Shakespeare in the tragedy “Boris Godunov”. In the struggle for realism in Russian literature, V. G. Belinsky also relies on Shakespeare. The importance of Shakespeare especially increased in the 30-50s of the 19th century. By projecting Shakespearean images onto modern times, A. I. Herzen, I. A. Goncharov and others helped to better understand the tragedy of the time. A notable event was the production of “Hamlet” translated by N. A. Polevoy (1837) with P. S. Mochalov (Moscow) and V. A. Karatygin (St. Petersburg) in leading role. In the tragedy of Hamlet, V. G. Belinsky and other progressive people of the era saw the tragedy of their generation. The image of Hamlet attracts the attention of I. S. Turgenev, who discerned the features in him " extra people"(Article "Hamlet and Don Quixote", 1860), F. M. Dostoevsky.
In parallel with the understanding of Shakespeare's work in Russia, familiarity with Shakespeare's works themselves deepened and expanded. In the 18th and early 19th centuries, mainly French adaptations of Shakespeare were translated. Translations of the 1st half of the 19th century were guilty of either literalism (Hamlet, translated by M. Vronchenko, 1828) or excessive freedom (Hamlet, translated by Polevoy). In 1840-1860, translations by A. V. Druzhinin, A. A. Grigoriev, P. I. Weinberg and others revealed attempts at a scientific approach to solving problems of literary translation (the principle of linguistic adequacy, etc.). In 1865-1868, edited by N.V. Gerbel, the first “Complete Collection of Shakespeare’s Dramatic Works Translated by Russian Writers” was published. In 1902-1904, under the editorship of S. A. Vengerov, the second pre-revolutionary Complete Works of Shakespeare was published.
The traditions of advanced Russian thought were continued and developed by Soviet Shakespeare studies on the basis of deep generalizations made by K. Marx and F. Engels. In the early 20s, lectures on Shakespeare were given by A. V. Lunacharsky. The art historical aspect of studying Shakespeare's heritage comes to the fore (V.K. Muller, I.A. Aksyonov). Historical and literary monographs (A. A. Smirnov) and individual problematic works (M. M. Morozov) appear. Significant contribution to modern science works on Shakespeare are presented by A. A. Anikst, N. Ya. Berkovsky, and a monograph by L. E. Pinsky. Film directors G. M. Kozintsev and S. I. Yutkevich interpret the nature of Shakespeare’s work in a unique way.
Criticizing allegories and lush metaphors, hyperboles and unusual comparisons, “horrors and buffoonery, reasoning and effects” - character traits style of Shakespeare's plays, Tolstoy took them as signs of exceptional art serving the needs of the “upper class” of society. Tolstoy at the same time points out many advantages of the plays of the great playwright: his remarkable “ability to lead scenes in which the movement of feelings is expressed,” the extraordinary stage quality of his plays, their genuine theatricality. The article on Shakespeare contains Tolstoy's deep judgments about dramatic conflict, characters, the development of action, the language of characters, the technique of constructing drama, etc.
He said: “So I allowed myself to blame Shakespeare. But with him, every person acts; and it is always clear why he acts that way. He had pillars with the inscription: moonlight, house. And thank God, because all attention was focused on the essence of drama, but now it’s completely the opposite.” Tolstoy, who “denied” Shakespeare, placed him above the playwrights - his contemporaries, who created ineffective plays of “moods”, “riddles”, “symbols”.
Recognizing that under the influence of Shakespeare the entire world drama developed, which did not have a “religious basis,” Tolstoy attributed his “theatrical plays” to it, noting that they were written “by chance.” Thus, the critic V.V. Stasov, who enthusiastically greeted the appearance of his folk drama “The Power of Darkness,” found that it was written with Shakespearean power.
In 1928, based on her impressions from reading Shakespeare’s “Hamlet,” M. I. Tsvetaeva wrote three poems: “Ophelia to Hamlet,” “Ophelia in Defense of the Queen,” and “Hamlet’s Dialogue with Conscience.”
In all three poems by Marina Tsvetaeva, one can distinguish a single motive that prevails over others: the motive of passion. Moreover, the role of the bearer of the ideas of a “warm heart” is Ophelia, who in Shakespeare appears as a model of virtue, purity and innocence. She becomes an ardent defender of Queen Gertrude and is even identified with passion.
Since the mid-30s of the 19th century, Shakespeare has occupied a large place in the repertoire of Russian theater. P. S. Mochalov (Richard III, Othello, Lear, Hamlet), V. A. Karatygin (Hamlet, Lear) are famous performers of Shakespearean roles. The Moscow Maly Theater created its own school of theatrical embodiment - a combination of stage realism with elements of romance - in the 2nd half of the 19th - early 20th centuries, which produced such outstanding interpreters of Shakespeare as G. Fedotova, A. Lensky, A. Yuzhin, M. Ermolova . At the beginning of the 20th century, the Moscow Art Theater turned to the Shakespearean repertoire ("Julius Caesar", 1903, staged by Vl. I. Nemirovich-Danchenko with the participation of K. S. Stanislavsky; "Hamlet", 1911, staged by G. Craig; Caesar and Hamlet - V. I. Kachalov
And:
Who doesn't know who Shakespeare is? Among the adult population of not only England, but also Russia, you are unlikely to find such a person. His talent was admired by many, but few understood. Shakespeare was worshiped and envied. This, for example, is evidenced by the literary translation of the biography text from disshelp.ru. Now many theories have developed that Shakespeare is not Shakespeare at all, but a group of people whose works he appropriated for himself. But, be that as it may, you and I will not stir up old history, collecting gossip on a global scale, because his work is worth admiring and learning to live in such a way that there will be something to talk about and even gossip about you later. So, about the work of this giant of artistic thought.
Researchers have identified three periods of the genius's creativity, which show the consistent development of the playwright's talent and the decline of faith that the real world would one day be fair to him.
First period(1590s) is called optimistic because at that time he wrote many comedies, which are characterized by a joyful perception of the world, belief in happiness, love and human decency. Here it is worth highlighting such of his works as “A Midsummer Night’s Dream”, “The Taming of the Shrew”, “Much Ado About Nothing”. Many of Shakespeare's comedies have been filmed. Comedy characters are lively, multifaceted, freedom-loving and simply beautiful. Women's images They are in no way inferior to men’s, and in some comedies they are written much more interestingly.
Second period called "tragic". It dates from 1601-1607, characteristic feature is that the author writes mainly tragedies during this period of time. It was these difficult years that brought him world fame and fame, because here are such brilliant creations as “Othello”, “Hamlet”, “King Lear”, etc., which were filmed in many countries. Shakespeare's tragedies are the depth of philosophical perception of the world, internal contradictions that tear apart the hero's soul. Here Shakespeare the master was able to skillfully show the suffering of an intelligent, purposeful person who is unable to live in conflict with the world.
Third period It is customary to call the years 1608-1612, which reveal Shakespeare as a romantic philosopher, so it is no coincidence that some researchers call his work both romantic and philosophical. The clearest example is “The Winter's Tale,” which is perceived by creativity researchers as disappointment with reality and a retreat into the fantastic world of fairy tales, in which everything is different, not the same as in life.
Shakespeare's work was admired, and your children will also be keenly interested in it, because the talent of this creator has lasted for 400 years, and in the future - for the same number of years.
Keywords: translation of the text, Three periods of Shakespeare's work, A Midsummer Night's Dream, The Taming of the Shrew, Much Ado About Nothing, Othello, Hamlet, King Lear, Shakespeare's Tragedies, the depth of philosophical perception of the world, The Winter's Tale, periodization of Shakespeare's work
William Shakespeare
The work of the great English writer William Shakespeare has worldwide significance. Shakespeare's genius is dear to all humanity. The world of ideas and images of the humanist poet is truly huge. Shakespeare's worldwide significance lies in the realism and popular nature of his work.
William Shakespeare was born on April 23, 1564 in Stratford-on-Avon, the son of a glover. The future playwright studied at a grammar school, where they taught Latin and Greek languages, as well as literature and history. Live in provincial town provided the opportunity for close communication with the people from whom Shakespeare learned English folklore and wealth vernacular. For some time Shakespeare was a junior teacher. In 1582 he married Anne Hathaway; he had three children. In 1587, Shakespeare left for London and soon began acting on stage, although he did not have much success as an actor. From 1593 he worked at Burbage's theater as an actor, director and playwright, and from 1599 he became a shareholder of the Globe Theatre. Shakespeare's plays were very popular, although few people knew his name at that time, because the audience paid attention primarily to the actors.
In London, Shakespeare met a group of young aristocrats. To one of them, the Earl of Southampton, he dedicated his poems “Venus and Adonis” (1593) and “Lucrece” (1594). In addition to these poems, he wrote a collection of sonnets and thirty-seven plays.
In 1612, Shakespeare left the theater, stopped writing plays and returned to Stratford-on-Avon. Shakespeare died on April 23, 1616 and was buried in his hometown.
The lack of information about Shakespeare's life gave rise to the so-called Shakespeare question. Since the 18th century. Some researchers began to express the idea that Shakespeare's plays were not written by Shakespeare, but by another person who wanted to hide his authorship and published his works under the name of Shakespeare. But Theories that deny Shakespeare's authorship are untenable. They arose on the basis of distrust of the legends that served as the source of Shakespeare’s biography, and on the basis of a reluctance to see genius in a person of democratic origin who did not graduate from university. What is known about Shakespeare's life fully confirms his authorship.
Creative path Shakespeare is divided into three periods.
First period
The first period is approximately 1590-1594
years.
According to literary devices it can be called a period of imitation: Shakespeare is still entirely in the power of his predecessors. According to your mood this period was defined by supporters of the biographical approach to the study of Shakespeare’s work as a period of idealistic faith in the best aspects of life: “Young Shakespeare enthusiastically punishes vice in his historical tragedies and enthusiastically glorifies high and poetic feelings - friendship, self-sacrifice and especially love” (Vengerov) .
Chronicles: Henry VI and Richard III (tetralogy); “Richard II”, “Henry IV” (2 parts), “Henry V” (cycle); "King John"
The most characteristic genre for this period was the cheerful, light comedy: Comedies: “The Taming of the Shrew”, “The Two Gentlemen of Verona”, “Love’s Labour’s Lost”, “A Midsummer Night’s Dream”, “The Merchant of Venice”, “The Merry Wives of Windsor”, “Much Ado” out of nothing,” “As You Like It,” “Twelfth Night.”
Tragedies: Titus Andronicus, Romeo and Juliet.
In the tragedy " Titus Andronicus“Shakespeare fully paid tribute to the tradition of contemporary playwrights to hold the audience’s attention by whipping up passions, cruelty and naturalism.
The genre of chronicle arose before Shakespeare. This is a play based on a plot from national English history. England is the undisputed leader of Europe, national self-awareness is growing, and interest in the past is awakening.
Shakespeare in his chronicles revealed the patterns of movement of history. His plays cannot be imagined outside the course of historical time. He is the heir to the mystery drama. In the mystery of the Middle Ages, everything is very colorful and dynamic. In Shakespeare too - there are no three unities, there is a mixture of high and low (Falstaff). The inclusiveness and universality of Shakespeare's dramatic world comes from the mystery theater of the Middle Ages.
Shakespeare reveals historical contradictions in his chronicles. Earth's history does not end and it is unknown when it will end. Time realizes goals through opposition and struggle. The chronicles are not about the king (after whom the chronicle is named), but about the time of his reign. Shakespeare of the first period is not tragic; all the contradictions of Shakespeare are part of a harmonious and meaningful world.
Shakespeare's Comedy Genre.
The comedies of the first period have their own main plot: love is part of the natural whole. Nature is the ruler, she is spiritual and beautiful. There is nothing ugly about her, she is harmonious. Man is part of it, which means he is also beautiful and harmonious. Comedy is not tied to any historical time.
In his comedies, Shakespeare uses not satire (ridiculing social vices), but humor (laughter at comic contradictions that arise due to unjustified claims to significance in private rather than in civil life). There is no evil in his comedies, there is only a lack of harmony, which is always restored.
^ Second period:
Tragedies: “Julius Caesar”, “Hamlet”, “Othello”, “King Lear”, “Macbeth”, “Antony and Cleopatra”, “Coriolanus”, “Timon of Athens”.
Tragicomedies: “Measure for Measure”, “Troilus and Cressida”, “The End is the Crown of the Case”.
Tragedies have their own main plot: the hero experiences a shock, he makes a discovery for himself that changes his understanding of the world. In tragedies, evil arises as an active independent force. This forces the hero to make a choice. The hero's struggle is the fight against evil.
Around 1600, Shakespeare creates Hamlet. Shakespeare preserved the plot of the famous revenge tragedy, but shifted all his attention to the spiritual discord and the internal drama of the protagonist. A new type of hero was introduced into the traditional revenge drama. Shakespeare was ahead of his time: Hamlet is not the usual tragic hero carrying out vengeance for the sake of Divine justice. Coming to the conclusion that it is impossible to restore harmony with one blow, he experiences the tragedy of alienation from the world and dooms himself to loneliness. According to L. E. Pinsky, Hamlet is the first “reflective” hero of world literature.
In the disintegrating cosmos of tragedies, the elements suffer along with people. Tragic fate Lyre is echoed by the catastrophes that have engulfed nature and the entire world order. The universe in Macbeth erupts from its depths the terrible figures of witches, the embodiment of the base principles of nature, a force hostile to all things, full of deceit and ambiguity: “Good is evil, evil is good.”
^ Third period:
Fantasy dramas: “Pericles”, “Cymbeline”, “The Tempest”, “The Winter's Tale”
Chronicle: "Henry VIII".
In the plays of the latter period, difficult trials are accompanied by the joy of deliverance from disasters. Slander is exposed, innocence is justified, fidelity is rewarded, the madness of jealousy has no tragic consequences, lovers are united in a happy marriage.
In Shakespeare's later dramas, in the greatest of them, The Tempest, the metaphor of the "world-theater" experiences a new - final transformation. The Renaissance idea of the “world-theater” merges with the baroque image of “life-dream”. The sage and magician Prospero stages a performance on his magical island, all the roles in which are played by disembodied flying spirits, and the performance itself is akin to a fantastic dream.
But, telling about the illusory nature of existence, doomed to death, Shakespeare does not talk about its meaninglessness. The world in this play is ruled by a royal sage, the demiurge of this universe. The poetic space of the play is formed by the confrontation and struggle of two contrasting motifs - “storm” and “music”. The storm of natural elements and selfish passions is opposed by the music of universal harmony and the human spirit. The “storm” in the play is tamed by “music” and becomes subject to it.
SHAKESPEARE'S SONNETS
The pinnacle of English poetry of the Renaissance and the most important milestone in the history of world poetry were Shakespeare's sonnets (1592-1598, published in 1699).
Researchers of sonnets fall into two main directions: some consider everything in them to be autobiographical, others, on the contrary, see in sonnets a purely literary exercise in a fashionable style, without denying, however, the autobiographical significance of some details. At the heart of the autobiographical theory is the absolutely correct observation that sonnets are not a simple collection of individual poems. Each sonnet contains, of course, something complete, as a complete expression of one thought. But if you read sonnet after sonnet, you will undoubtedly see that they form a number of groups and that within these groups one sonnet is, as it were, a continuation of the other.
A sonnet is a poem of 14 lines. In Shakespeare's sonnets, the following rhyme scheme is adopted: abab cdcd efef gg, that is, three quatrains with cross rhymes, and one couplet (a type introduced by the poet Earl of Surrey, executed under Henry VIII). Artistic excellence in the expression of deep philosophical ideas is inseparable from the concise, laconic form of the sonnet. Three quatrains provide a dramatic development of the theme, often with the help of contrasts and antitheses and in the form of a metaphorical image; the final distich is an aphorism formulating philosophical thought Topics.
In total, Shakespeare wrote 154 sonnets, and most of them were created in the years 1592-1599. They were first printed without the author's knowledge in 1609. Two of them were published back in 1599 in the collection “The Passionate Pilgrim”. These are sonnets 138 And 144 .
The entire cycle of sonnets falls into separate thematic groups:
- Sonnets dedicated to a friend: 1 -126
- Chanting a friend: 1 -26
- Friendship Tests: 27 -99
- The bitterness of separation: 27 -32
- First disappointment in a friend: 33 -42
- Longing and fears: 43 -55
- Growing alienation and melancholy: 56 -75
- Rivalry and jealousy of other poets: 76 -96
- “Winter” of separation: 97 -99
- A celebration of renewed friendship: 100 -126
- Sonnets dedicated to a dark-skinned lover: 127 -152
- Conclusion - the joy and beauty of love: 153 -154
So, the first 26 sonnets convince some young, noble and very handsome young man to marry so that his beauty does not disappear and continues to live in his children. A number of sonnets glorify this young man for providing the poet with enlightened patronage; in another group there are bitter complaints that other poets have seized the patronage of a high patron. In the absence of the poet, the patron took possession of his beloved, but he forgives him for this. The address to the noble young man ends in sonnet 126, after which a dark-skinned lady with jet-black hair and black eyes begins to appear. This soulless coquette cheated on the poet and lured his friend. But who is this noble young man and who is the soulless coquette? This is where the imagination of the researchers began to work, mixing the reliable with complete arbitrariness.
Sonnet 126 violates the canon - it has only 12 lines and a different rhyme pattern. Sometimes it is considered a division between two conventional parts of the cycle - sonnets dedicated to friendship (1-126) and addressed to the “dark lady” (127-154). Sonnet 145 written in iambic tetrameter instead of pentameter and differs in style from the others.
By the end of the 16th century. The sonnet became the leading genre in English poetry. Shakespeare's sonnets, in their philosophical depth, lyrical power, dramatic feeling and musicality, occupy an outstanding place in the development of the sonnet art of that time. Shakespeare's sonnets are lyrical confessions; the hero tells about the life of his heart, about his conflicting feelings; this is a passionate monologue, angrily denouncing the hypocrisy and cruelty that reigned in society, and contrasting them with enduring spiritual values - friendship, love, art. The sonnets reveal a complex and multifaceted spiritual world lyrical hero, vividly responding to the problems of his time. The poet exalts the spiritual beauty of man and at the same time depicts the tragedy of life under the conditions of that time.
The image of the dark lady in sonnet 130 is distinguished by the skill of a truthful lyrical portrait. Shakespeare refuses mannered, euphuistic comparisons, trying to draw the real appearance of a woman:
Her eyes are not like stars
You can't call your mouth coral,
The open skin of the shoulders is not snow-white,
And a strand curls like black wire.
With damask rose, scarlet or white,
You can't compare the shade of these cheeks.
And the body smells like the body smells,
Not like a violet's delicate petal.
(Translated by S. Marshak)
Among the sonnets in which the most important social ideas are expressed, the 66th sonnet stands out. This is an angry denunciation of a society based on baseness, meanness and deceit. All the ills of an unjust society are named in lapidary phrases. The lyrical hero is so deeply worried about what has opened before him. scary picture triumphant evil that begins to call for death. The sonnet, however, ends with a glimmer of light. The hero remembers his beloved, for whose sake he must live:
Everything I see around is disgusting
But it’s a pity to leave you, dear friend!
The full power of the emotions of the excited hero is perfectly conveyed by means of language and style. The 146th sonnet is dedicated to the greatness of a person who, thanks to his spiritual quest and tireless creative burning, is able to gain immortality.
Rule over death in fleeting life,
And death will die, but you will remain forever.
The diverse connections of the spiritual world of the lyrical hero with various aspects of social life of that time are emphasized by metaphorical images based on political, economic, legal, and military concepts. Love is revealed as a real feeling, therefore the relationships of lovers are compared with the socio-political relations of that time. In the 26th sonnet, the concepts of vassalage (vassalage) and ambassadorial duties (ambassage) appear; in the 46th sonnet - legal terms: “the defendant doth that plea deny”; in the 107th sonnet there is an image related to economics: “love is like a lease” (the lease of my true love); in the 2nd sonnet - military terms: “When forty winters shall besiege thy brow, And dig deep trenches in the beauty"s field.. .).
Shakespeare's sonnets are musical. The entire figurative structure of his poems is close to music.
Shakespeare's poetic image is also close to the pictorial image. In the verbal art of the sonnet, the poet relies on the law of perspective discovered by Renaissance artists. The 24th sonnet begins with the words: My eye became an engraver and your image was truly imprinted on my chest. Since then I have served as a living frame, And the best thing in art is perspective.
Romeo and Juliet.
W. Shakespeare's tragedies "Romeo and Juliet" (1595), which forever became a symbol of the beautiful, but tragic love two young beings divided irreparably by the centuries-old feud of the family clans to which they belong: the Montagues (Romeo) and the Capulets (Juliet). These names are mentioned in " Divine Comedy» Dante. Subsequently, the plot of two lovers was developed many times in Italian literature of the Renaissance; the names of Romeo and Juliet first appear in “The Story of Two Noble Lovers” by Luigi da Porto (c. 1524), where the action takes place precisely in Verona. From da Porto the plot passed to other writers, in particular to Matteo Bandello (1554), whose short story served as the basis for Arthur Brooke’s poem “Romeo and Juliet” (1562), which, in turn, became the main, if not the only, source Shakespearean tragedy. However, as always, Shakespeare poured new wine into old wineskins. Brook, while portraying his loving heroes not without sympathy, is nevertheless inclined to viscous moralizing and preaching humility, moderation and humility in the face of hostile circumstances. For him, the love of Romeo and Juliet, if not a sin, is at least a kind of excess and delusion, for which they suffer a well-deserved punishment. Shakespeare approached this story completely differently. His Renaissance ideal of great love, which turns out to be above family prejudices, above the centuries-old hatred that seems insurmountably separating two young offspring of warring clans, is still perceived today in an absolutely modern way, without discounting the four centuries that separate us from the moment the play was created. The action of Shakespeare's tragedy is laid out in five days, during which all the events of the play take place: from the initial - and fatal! - the meeting of Romeo and Juliet at a ball in the Capulet house before their sad death in the Capulet family crypt. Shakespeare's heroes are very young, but the depth of the feeling that affects them makes them adults beyond their years. However, in this sense they are quite different. Romeo at the beginning of the play is naive, he languidly suffers from falling in love with a certain Rosalind. (Unlike Brook making her active actor and building a long action around her and Romeo, Shakespeare does not bring her onto the stage at all.) Around Romeo there is a whole company of young men like him (Mercutio, Benvolio), and he spends his time as it should be at his age: staggering idly, sighing languidly and doing nothing. From the very beginning, from her first appearance, Juliet amazes not only with the purity and charm of her blossoming youth, but also with childish depth, a tragic sense of existence. She is older than Romeo. He, having fallen in love with Juliet, gradually realizes how serious and difficult everything that happens between them is and how many obstacles there are in their path, and, as it were, grows up to her, turning from an ordinary young womanizer into a passionately loving and ready to do anything for the sake of this love “not a boy, but a husband." The love of Romeo and Juliet is not just a violation of family prohibitions - it is an open challenge thrown by them to the centuries-old tradition of hatred - the hatred with which numerous Montagues and Capulets were born and died over many generations, on which almost the state foundations of Verona were based. That’s why everyone is so afraid of the recklessness and depth of the feelings that gripped Romeo and Juliet, that’s why they’re trying so hard to separate them. For their love, their union undermines the foundations, violates what cannot be violated. Despite their youth and carelessness, despite all the boyish daring of Romeo and the girlish spontaneity of Juliet, they know the destiny of the ending almost from the very beginning. “My soul is full of gloomy forebodings!” - says Juliet, looking after Romeo going into exile. The power and extremeness of their passion, the finality of the decision they made and the reckless determination to do everything, including death, shock even the one who, it would seem, understands them and not only sympathizes with them, but also contributes in every possible way - Father Lorenzo: “ The end of such passions can be terrible, // And death awaits them in the midst of celebration.” The Duke of Verona sees a terrible scene. In the Capulet family crypt lie the dead bodies of Romeo, Juliet and Paris. Yesterday the young people were alive and full of life, but today they were taken away by death. The tragic death of the children finally reconciled the Montague and Capulet families. But at what cost was peace achieved! The ruler of Verona makes a sad conclusion: “There is no sadder story in the world than the story of Romeo Juliet.” It seems that not even two days have passed since the Duke was indignant and threatened Romeo with “cruel retribution” when Tybalt and Mercutio were killed. You cannot punish the dead; it was necessary to punish at least one survivor. Now the Duke, sincerely regretting what happened, still stands his ground: “Forgiveness for some, punishment awaits others.” Who is he going to pardon, who is he going to punish? Unknown. The monarch spoke out and expressed his will for the edification of the living. He was unable to prevent the tragedy through government measures, and now that it has happened, his severity will not change anything. The Duke hoped for strength. With the help of weapons, he wanted to stop lawlessness. He believed that the fear of imminent punishment would stop the Montagues from raising their hand against the Capulets, and the Capulets who were ready to rush at the Montagues. So, was the law weak or the Duke was unable to take advantage of it? Shakespeare believed in the possibilities of the monarchy and did not expect to debunk it. The memory of the War of the Scarlet and White Roses, which brought so much devastation to the country, was still alive. Therefore, the playwright tried to show the keeper of the law as an authoritative person who does not throw words to the wind. If you keep in mind author's intention, then our attention should be drawn to the correlation of the struggle of patrician families with the interests of the state. Unbridledness, self-will, vindictiveness, which became the principles of life of the Montagues and Capulets, are condemned by life and power. Actually, this is the political and philosophical meaning of those scenes in which the Duke acts. The plot branch, which at first glance is not so significant, allows us to understand more deeply the battle for free life and human rights waged by Romeo and Juliet. The tragedy takes on scale and depth. The play resists the popular belief that it is a tragedy of love. On the contrary, if we mean love, then it triumphs in Romeo and Juliet. “This is the pathos of love,” wrote V. G. Belinsky, “because in the lyrical monologues of Romeo and Juliet one can see not only admiration for each other, but also a solemn, proud, ecstatic recognition of love, divine feeling.” Love is the main sphere of life of the heroes of the tragedy; it is the criterion of their beauty and humanity. This is the banner raised against the cruel inertia of the old world.
Issues“Romeo and Juliet” The basis of the problematic of “Romeo and Juliet” is the question of the fate of young people, inspired by the establishment of new high Renaissance ideals and boldly entered into the struggle for the protection of free human feeling. However, the resolution of the conflict in the tragedy is determined by the clash of Romeo and Juliet with forces that are characterized quite clearly in social terms. These forces that hinder the happiness of young lovers are associated with old moral norms, which are embodied not only in the theme of family feud, but also in the theme of violence against human personality, which ultimately leads the heroes to death.
A loving Romeo is patient. He will not rashly get involved in a duel: it could end in the death of one or even both participants in the battle. Love makes Romeo reasonable, wise in his own way. Gaining flexibility does not come at the expense of losing hardness and durability. When it becomes clear that the vengeful Tybalt cannot be stopped with words, when the enraged Tybalt pounces like a beast on the good-natured Mercutio and kills him, Romeo takes up arms. Not out of vindictive motives! He is no longer the old Montague. Romeo punishes Tybalt for murder. What else could he do? Love is demanding: a person must be a fighter. In Shakespeare's tragedy we do not find a cloudless idyll: the feelings of Romeo and Juliet are severely tested. Neither Romeo nor Juliet think for a minute what to give preference to: love or hatred, which traditionally defines the relationship between the Montagues and the Capulets. They merged in one impulse. But individuality did not dissolve in the general feeling. Not inferior to her beloved in determination, Juliet is more spontaneous. She's still just a child. The mother and nurse establish precisely: there are two weeks left on the day when Juliet turns fourteen. The play inimitably recreates this age of the girl: the world amazes her with its contrasts, she is full of vague expectations. Juliet did not learn to hide her feelings. There are three feelings: she loves, she admires, she grieves. She is not familiar with irony. She is surprised that one can hate a Montague just because he is a Montague. She protests. When the nurse, who knows about Juliet’s love, half-jokingly advises her to marry Paris, the girl becomes angry with the old woman. Juliet wants everyone to be constant like her. So that everyone will appreciate the incomparable Romeo. The girl has heard or read about the fickleness of men, and at first she dares to tell her beloved about this, but immediately rejects all suspicion: love makes you believe in a person. And this childishness of feelings and behavior is also transformed into maturity - Romeo is not the only one growing up. Having fallen in love with Romeo, she begins to understand human relationships better than her parents. According to the Capulet spouses, Count Paris is an excellent groom for their daughter: handsome, noble, courteous. They initially believe that Juliet will agree with them. For them, one thing is important: the groom must approach, he must comply with the unwritten code of decency. Capulet's daughter rises above class prejudices. She prefers to die rather than marry someone she doesn't love. She will not hesitate to tie herself in marital ties with the one she loves. These are her intentions, these are her actions. Juliet's actions become more confident. The girl is the first to start a conversation about marriage and demands that Romeo, without delaying matters, becomes her husband the very next day. Juliet's beauty, the strength of her character, the proud awareness of being right - all these traits are most fully expressed in relation to Romeo. To convey the tension high feelings, lofty words were found: Yes, my Montague, yes, I am reckless, And you have the right to consider me flighty.
Related information.
The first is characterized by optimism, the dominance of a bright feeling of life, cheerful tones. This primarily includes a number of Shakespeare's cheerful and picturesque comedies, often colored with deep lyricism, for example, A Midsummer Night's Dream (1595), The Merchant of Venice (1596), Much Ado About Nothing (1598), As You Like It "(1599), "Twelfth Night" (1600), etc.
At the same time, Shakespeare created a series of his “chronicles” (plays based on stories from English history): “Richard III” (1592), “Richard II” (1595), two parts of “Henry IV” (1597), “Henry V” ( 1599), etc. Although these plays often depict very dark and cruel pictures, faith in life, in the victory of the good principle, still prevails in them.
The tragedies “Romeo and Juliet” (1595) and “Julius Caesar” (1599) also belong to this period. The first of them, despite its tragic plot, is written in light and cheerful colors and contains many funny scenes reminiscent of Shakespeare's comedies that appeared at the same time. The second, more severe, is the transition to the second period.
In this second period, from 1601 to 1608, Shakespeare poses and resolves the great tragic problems of life, and a stream of pessimism joins his faith in life.
Almost regularly, one a year, he writes his tragedies one after another: “Hamlet” (1601), “Othello” (1604), “King Lear” (1605), “Macbeth” (1605), “Antony and Cleopatra” (1606), “Coriolanus” (1607), “Timon of Athens” (1608). He did not stop composing comedies at this time, but all the comedies he wrote during this period, with the exception of “The Merry Wives of Windsor” (1601 - 1602), no longer have the previous character of carefree fun and contain such a strong tragic element that , using modern terminology, it would be convenient to call them “dramas”: such, for example, is the play “Measure for Measure” (1604).
Finally, in the third period, from 1608 to 1612, Shakespeare wrote almost exclusively “tragicomedies” (plays with intensely dramatic content, but with a happy ending), in which a dreamy, lyrical attitude towards life is manifested. The most important are Cymbeline (1609), The Winter's Tale (1610), and The Tempest (1612).
During the first period of Shakespeare's work, he wrote the best of his comedies, striking us with their liveliness and sparkling wit.
“In the first act of The Wishes of Windsor alone,” Engels wrote to Marx in 1875, “there is more life and reality than in the whole German literature; Lance alone with his dog Kreb is worth more than all German comedies put together” 1. (1 Marx K. and Engels F. Soch. Ed. 2, vol. 33, p. 89.)
However, underneath this gaiety, which reflects the vitality characteristic of the Renaissance, Shakespeare poses big problems and expresses deep thoughts.
One of his earliest comedies, Love's Labour's Lost, depicts how the King of Navarre and several of his associates decide to renounce love and immerse themselves in the study of philosophy. But the arrival of the French princess and her ladies-in-waiting upsets their plans, as they all fall in love with the young ladies who arrive.
In this play, Shakespeare criticizes the old, scholastic understanding of wisdom as something separated from real life. At the same time, he ridicules the euphuistic style that was fashionable in his time. Shakespeare himself paid tribute to this florid style, echoes of which can be heard even in his tragedies; but from the very beginning Shakespeare tries to overcome it in the name of healthy naturalness and simplicity. At the end of the play, one of the courtiers, Biron, renounces verbal tinsel and vows from now on to be simple and truthful in expressing feelings. In another monologue, the same Biron reveals the absurdity of the ascetic renunciation of love for the sake of philosophy, declaring that love is the best incentive for the development of the mind.
In A Midsummer Night's Dream, the rights of free, self-determining love are affirmed, which defeats paternal power, the “ancient right” of parents to control the lives of their children. The action takes place in the lap of nature, the charms of which favor lovers. Developing in this play the genre of “masks” (plays of a decorative and fantastic nature), Shakespeare at the same time reforms it, replacing the conventional figures of ancient deities with images of folk English beliefs (elves, the prankster Peck), personifying the good forces of nature.
In the comedy “Twelfth Night,” the simple-minded and very real love of the smart and courageous Viola for Orsino is contrasted with the far-fetched, slightly rhetorical passion of Orsino for Olivia. At the same time, the stupid, secretly ambitious pedant Malvolio, who looks like a Puritan, is ridiculed, the enemy of careless fun, embodied in the images of Olivia’s dissolute, but good-natured and witty uncle, Sir Toby, her frisky maid and other servants.
"The Merchant of Venice" goes beyond the theme of love. Two worlds confront each other here: the world of joy, beauty, friendship, generosity (Antonio and his friends, Bassanio, Portia, Nerissa, Jessica) and the world of acquisitiveness, stinginess, malice (Shylock and his friends). Antonio, always ready to help his friends and lending money without interest, embodies Shakespeare’s dreamed ideal of an active man and at the same time a humanist, receptive to the “music of the heavenly spheres” (Act V), which is inaccessible to Shylock’s gloomy soul. Portia’s famous speech at the trial about “mercy” as a complement and adornment of every law is deeply consonant with this ideal. The fetish of “law,” which guards Shylock’s bourgeois rights, is overturned in this play by the highest law of humanity.
At the same time, the dialectical nature of Shakespeare’s approach to human characters was manifested in the fact that, while depicting the “blackness” of Shylock’s soul, he at the same time shows the deep tragedy of Shylock, whom the surrounding society made him what he is. Shakespeare's Shylock is both a product and a victim, on the one hand, of the private property relations prevailing in his contemporary society, on the other, of the offensive injustice towards the Jews of this “brilliant” Renaissance society, i.e. the same Antonio, Bassanio, etc. .
One of the most remarkable comic characters created by Shakespeare is Falstaff, portrayed first in a number of scenes in Henry IV, and then again in the same year in the comedy The Merry Wives of Windsor. In his image, Shakespeare captured and generalized the most characteristic features of the social process taking place in his era. By origin, Falstaff is a nobleman. He enters the court, he scatters knightly oaths right and left, he tries to seduce the half-philistine Windsor woman with his title (“Sir”), he flaunts all the “knightly” noble prerogatives and “knightly” habits; finally, the entire famous gang with him (Nim, Bardolph, etc.), which does not receive a salary from him, but serves him on a “vassal” basis - for food and a share of the looted booty - is a brilliant parody of the feudal squads of the medieval barons. But at the same time, this is not a feudal lord of the old, classical type, but an opportunist, a feudal lord who has rebuilt himself, having perfectly, in his own words, “adopted the spirit of the times,” that is, all the worst skills of the era of primitive accumulation. Falstaff freed himself from all illusions of his class.
When he says “we, the knights of the night, the foresters of Diana, the cavaliers of darkness,” hinting at his nocturnal exploits on the roads, he cynically mocks all feudal-knightly concepts. His reasoning on the battlefield about knightly honor is especially expressive:
“What if honor sends me to the next world? What then? Can honor put its foot down? Or a hand? Or heal a wound? No... What then is honor? Word. What is contained in this word? Air... Who owns the honor? The one who died on Wednesday.”
For the crushing, declassed feudal lord Falstaff, “perestroika” is cast in the forms of roguery, petty pirate adventurism. He goes so far as to live at the expense of the landlady of a suspicious inn, and the end of his career is shown in The Merry Wives of Windsor: he is thrown out of the dirty laundry basket into the river like unnecessary trash.
Nevertheless, there is also something positive in Falstaff, also associated with the “spirit of the times”: this is his brilliant wit, which delights us because it is based on complete freedom of mind from all prejudices and restrictions. This allows Falstaff to laugh equally cheerfully at others and at himself. Such free and disinterested laughter constitutes Falstaff's main value and is partly his justification. The dissolute pastime in Falstaff's company also had good results for Prince Henry, developing his mind and accustoming him to freedom of judgment. If Falstaff uses his freedom from prejudice for evil, then the very fact of such liberation of thought is a positive phenomenon. Falstaff is one of Shakespeare's most complex and artistically developed characters.
Shakespeare's comic is extremely diverse both in its character and in its focus. In his comedies you can find whole line shades of comedy - from subtle humor to farcical, sometimes rude for our taste, but always bright and funny witticisms. Very often Shakespeare's jokes simply express an excess of cheerfulness. But often his laughter serves the purpose of exposing human stupidity or vulgarity.
The roles of jesters are very significant in Shakespeare. This name combines characters of two kinds. Firstly, Shakespeare often portrays professional jesters who, according to the plot of the play, serve nobles for their amusement; such are the jesters in As You Like It, in Twelfth Night, and also in the tragedy King Lear.
But in addition, in his plays he sometimes introduces peasant servants who amuse the audience with their mistakes or foolishness. These are actually not “clowns”, but “clown characters”; such, for example, is Shylock's servant Launcelot Gobbo or Doctor Caius' servant in The Merry Wives of Windsor.
Shakespeare's real jesters are much more varied and interesting. Under the guise of a joke, they often express deep and bold thoughts, mocking prejudices, denouncing all kinds of stupidity and vulgarity.
The plots of Shakespeare's comedies are always entertaining and picturesque; they are full of all sorts of adventures, accidents, misunderstandings, and coincidences. The idea of fate dominates in them.
It is especially clearly expressed in A Midsummer Night's Dream and Twelfth Night; however, it is present to a greater or lesser extent in all of Shakespeare's other comedies. This “fate” has nothing to do with the idea of an irresistible “fate” that makes any resistance on the part of man useless. It is understood by Shakespeare in the sense of “fortune” or “luck”, and expresses the feeling, characteristic of the people of the Renaissance, of the boundless expanse of life and the impossibility of foreseeing and taking into account everything in advance.
This idea of “fortune” calls a person not to passivity, but, on the contrary, to activity; it awakens in a person the desire to experience his happiness. Shakespeare's comedies show that the most daring attempts, if undertaken by gifted people who love life, end in success.