The confrontation between Spain and England in the 16th century is one of the most impressive stories in European history. A great empire, “on which the sun never sets,” and a small island, armed only with an advantageous strategic position and the spirit of national exclusivity. And now King Philip II sends the largest military fleet of his time to the English shores. However, the fate of the vanquished awaited the Spanish Invincible Armada.
At the end of August 1588, in all the Catholic cities of Europe, bells were ringing incessantly - this was how the great victory over the heretics was celebrated. At cathedrals and in city squares, “witnesses” of the events vividly described how the pirate Francis Drake was captured, and the Spanish army, with unfurled banners and cannon salvoes, solemnly entered London.
On the other side of the English Channel, on the contrary, extreme despondency reigned, and this despite the fact that here they knew the truth: the ships of the formidable enemy were scattered, the immediate danger had passed. But while the English sailors who took part in the battle with the Armada were dying of typhus (an epidemic broke out shortly after the battle), their compatriots were waiting for the Spaniards to return soon. The British were sure that a little time would pass, and the “persecutor of Albion” Philip II, having healed his wounds, would attack the unfortunate island with renewed vigor, and then nothing would save him.
And neither one nor the other - neither the good papists nor the ardent Protestants - could imagine that several centuries would pass, and in all textbooks they would begin to write about July-August 1588 as the “black months” of Spain, as the beginning of the end Catholic Empire.
Politics versus faith
England and Spain are real symbols of the religious and political confrontation that gripped Europe in the 16th century.
As you know, back in the 1530s, Henry VIII Tudor was the first to break with Rome and declared himself the head of the English church. At that time, this was an absolutely unprecedented step, and the reason for it was the desire to divorce the Spanish princess Catherine of Aragon. Today, a unilateral withdrawal of a major power from the UN would cause less of a shock.
And of course, Spain - “beloved daughter of the church” - could not remain indifferent to such an event. The Holy See, in turn, hoped to regain control over the rebellious island with the help of Spanish weapons.
The paradox, however, is that, despite religious contradictions, direct diplomatic relations between Spain and England remained friendly for quite a long time. In 1543, these countries even united against France. And 10 years later they concluded an inter-dynastic union: Philip II married Elizabeth’s older sister, Mary (his cousin, daughter of Catherine of Aragon).
And even under Elizabeth, both powers were more concerned about the growing power of France than about each other's ambitions. Their efforts were limited to fueling the smoldering conflict there (the days of the Valois dynasty were coming to an end). True, some supported the Huguenots of Henry of Navarre, while others supported the Catholics of the Duke of Guise, but formally everyone observed diplomatic neutrality.
The real stumbling block was the New World. Or rather, the wealth that came from there.
State and business
In 1562, Englishman John Hawkins dropped anchor in one of the Caribbean ports. His ship brought the most valuable cargo of the era - black slaves from West Africa. Returning to his homeland, the captain was disgraced for human trafficking. But when Elizabeth received exact data about the fantastic income from this enterprise, her philanthropy receded. The daughter of the wasteful Henry VIII received only an empty treasury and debts to businessmen from the City. As a result, the queen not only forgave Hawkins, but also knighted him, and also ordered a new expedition to be equipped under his command with a secret mission - on occasion, to rob a potential enemy of England.
 Sir John Hawkins (1520-1595) was one of the heroes who resisted the Armada. Photo: INTER FOTO/VOSTOCK PHOTO |
Voyages of this kind soon began to be organized in large numbers according to the usual principle of joint-stock companies. Here, too, Hawkins at first turned out to be the most successful of all - after all, Elizabeth herself participated in his company as a shareholder, and therefore he received the right to fly the royal flag.
Many senior officials followed the example of the head of state. What would now be called a public-private partnership emerged, involving smuggling, robbery and the slave trade.
Of course, such activities immediately caused strong protest in Spain. Instead of visiting its ports on the way to America and paying duties for it, the British now not only went there directly, but also attacked Philip’s ships.
It didn’t take long to wait for a response: when in 1568 Hawkins’s squadron was battered by a storm and went to the island of San Juande Uloa off the coast of the Viceroyalty of New Spain (now Mexico) for repairs, his warships opened fire and sank almost all of the corsair’s ships .
Elizabeth, feigning innocence, expected an apology for this punitive action from her “beloved brother” Philip. He, in turn, rightfully accused the English queen of hypocrisy and hidden hostility.
Relations between the two countries were hopelessly damaged. And, unfortunately for the Spanish crown, the only ship that survived the collision was commanded by a poor sailor named Francis Drake.
El Draque
The Spaniards nicknamed Drake the Dragon (El Draque), of course, because of his surname. But in the confrontation between the two powers, he had to play a truly “dragon” - a key role.
Among his fellow craftsmen, Drake was distinguished by two important qualities: he was as cruel as he was lucky. It was this “domineering and irritable man with a furious character” who was the first to capture an entire caravan of silver heading to Seville from the colonies. The Englishman got about 30 tons of precious metal, and even the death of two siblings in this operation did not overshadow his triumph.
Drake, of course, was noticed. In 1577, it was he who was entrusted by Elizabeth with the command of an expedition to the west coast of America, officially with the goal of finding new lands in the open ocean. The Spaniards were hinted that in fact the English fleet would turn to the Mediterranean Sea to attack Ottoman Alexandria... In general, the attacks by English ships on Peruvian ports came as a complete surprise to them.
The British booty amounted to about 500,000 pounds, despite the fact that the annual income of the crown was then estimated at only 300,000. A few months later, Elizabeth knighted Drake right on deck. And the Spaniards subsequently called him “the cause of all wars with England.”
Naturally, against this background, the Anglo-Spanish contradictions only worsened - in all directions. In 1566, when the Dutch subjects of Philip II rebelled, Elizabeth was the first to extend a hand of material assistance to her fellow Protestants. Another two years after the outbreak of this revolution, a ship from Cadiz entered Plymouth with pay for the government troops in Flanders. Formally, the state of war had not yet been declared, but, unfortunately for the Spaniards, it was precisely during these days that news of the events at San Juan de Uloa reached England. Local authorities, on “compensatory” grounds, immediately confiscated the cargo, and the ship itself was sent home.
The court at El Escorial was in extreme turmoil. They claimed that Elizabeth was using petty overseas grievances as a pretext to support the Dutch rebels. In fact, until 1570, although the Queen of England sanctioned financial support for her co-religionists, she was cool about the idea of overthrowing the legitimate power of the monarch in one of the territories under his control. Next to her, her own opposition was raising its head, and there were plenty of contenders for the Tudor throne, who also had grounds for their claims.
So the conflict flared up slowly, and perhaps the outcome would have been delayed for a very long time if the Pope had not suddenly rendered Spain a disservice. After Elizabeth suppressed one of the Catholic uprisings and executed several of the instigators, Pius V declared her subjects free from the oath. The queen could no longer remain indifferent to this: now English pounds flowed like a river into the Netherlands, and English officers went to raise the rebels’ fallen morale.
Action of intimidation
In January 1588, having learned of the discovery of another conspiracy, Elizabeth finally, “with a heavy heart,” authorized the execution of her captive, the former French and Scottish queen Mary Stuart. The taking of the life of the “righteous Catholic woman” caused loud protests throughout continental Europe. All eyes turned questioningly towards Madrid. There was a reason for decisive action. In Spain, nationwide preparations for war began.
However, a study of the sources shows: Escorial’s plans were not nearly as large-scale as historical rumors inflated them. Contrary to the widespread opinion among ordinary Englishmen - “they say, if it weren’t for Drake, we would all now speak Castilian” - Philip did not plan any colonization of the island, although he declared his personal rights to the English throne as the husband of the late Mary.
All that the “ruler of half the world” was counting on, as is clear from his numerous letters and orders, was to deliver a crushing pre-emptive strike and thereby deprive the British of most of the fleet, and therefore eliminate, at least temporarily, the notorious corsair threat. In addition, restoring the enemy’s naval potential would require a lot of money.
Contemporaries and historians generally believed that the main state talent of Philip II was economic - he knew and loved nothing so well as counting his own and other people's funds, for which he received the nickname Don Felipe el Contable, Don Felipe the Accountant. This means, the king reasoned, that the Dutch rebels would lose their main sponsor and would soon run out of steam. Of course, the Spanish king did not forget about noble motives - he must lend a helping hand to English Catholics, whose patron he always considered himself. Spain demanded the abolition of the provision regarding the Anglican Church as a state one... That, in general terms, is all.
But on the opposite bank of the English Channel, several enemy armies under the overall command of the Duke of Parma were seriously preparing for landing. To this day, some historians argue that the Armada was conceived as a cover for the landing force, which was to link up with the Catholics who rebelled at the right moment. Moreover, they refer to some maneuvers of the commander of the Grand Fleet, the Duke of Medina, which indirectly indicate this. But this is still unlikely, or the invasion was extremely poorly prepared. It is also possible that the Spaniards spread rumors about him for the purpose of intimidation.
And the enemy really became afraid, especially since the atmosphere was favorable to him. The 1580s already passed in England under the sign of apocalyptic expectations. Here and there events occurred that were interpreted as signs of the prophecies of John the Theologian.
And so rumors about the end of the world “successfully” coincided with rumors about the terrible Spanish invasion. (By the way, similar hysteria would grip the British 220 years later, when the landing of Napoleon’s Grand Army was expected on the island.) They said that the Armada consisted of either 200 ships and 36,000 people, or 300 ships, half of which were gigantic, unprecedented in history ; that even the abbeys in the Netherlands were turned into bakeries to provide for the needs of the sailors.
There was no shortage of stories about the horrors that awaited England in the event of defeat. Here, too, Dutch immigrants added fuel to the fire, founding entire settlements after fleeing their homeland, for example in Essex. They vividly depicted the torment for faith at the fires of the Inquisition.
Their compatriots in liberated Amsterdam, meanwhile, printed pamphlets with lists of scourges, whips and other torture instruments that were waiting in the wings of the Spanish ships. Rumor insisted that the fanatic Philip was determined to put the entire adult population of England to a terrible death. The remaining orphans will be given to the care of thousands of specially selected wet nurses who will accompany them to the Spanish shores. The further fate of the babies of Albion is a new “Babylonian captivity.”
In general, it was in the heads of the British, inflamed with fear and religious ecstasy, that the Invincible Armada was born. And in June 1588, a fleet left the ports of the Iberian Peninsula, not very ready for a major battle.
Shackled by fear
Don Alonso Perez de Guzman, Duke of Medina, Knight of the Order of the Golden Fleece, was not in a cheerful mood at all when, at the end of May 1588, he observed the final preparations for the departure of the Great Armada. He had never been a sailor, had no idea about battles on the waters, but nevertheless found himself at the head of the fleet - “by seniority,” nobility and the decision of the king.
The background for the performance was clearly unfavorable. A year earlier, Drake raided Cadiz and plundered this main supply warehouse of the Armada. The personnel of the expedition also did not inspire confidence in the commander: 30,000 people had to be collected wherever possible - in ports, prisons (an old Pyrenean tradition - to be released from prison on an obligation to enlist in the fleet), in villages among peasants who owed landowners - under debt forgiveness, among volunteer adventurers who had never seen the ocean. Ambitious aristocrats - captains of individual ships, as usual, were constantly at odds with each other and intriguing against the admiral. Court astrologers suddenly, completely inappropriately, predicted a great catastrophe for 1588. And most importantly, a few months before departure, epidemics began that claimed the lives of most of the sailors. There was a shortage of people even before the first shots were fired.
Nevertheless, on May 28, a huge fleet weighed anchor in Lisbon: 134 ships, including 20 galleons, 4 galleys and the same number of galleasses.
At the same time, the bells of all the city churches rang, and according to tradition, all sailors and officers were first absolved of their sins in the cathedral. But somehow, imperceptibly in small things, everything immediately went wrong. At first, the headwind did not allow the ships to move away from the shore for a very long time. And when, it seemed, they managed to control him, the fleet began to drift south. Then, with great difficulty, they managed to correct the course, but immediately the Armada was overtaken by a new misfortune: worms appeared in the food barrels made from raw wood (Drake burned the dry ones in Cadiz, but they did not have time to make new ones), and mass poisoning began. The commander was ready to stop further advance, but a strong storm did it for him, forcing him to go to A Coruña for repairs.
The Duke of Medina, like his overlord, was known as a zealous defender of the faith. At one time he was even a member of the tribunal of the Holy Inquisition and believed, of course, that his fleet was going to a holy cause. Even the flagship ships (formally the Armada included six flotillas: Andalusia, Castile, Portugal, Vizcaya, Levant and Guipuzco) were pointedly named after saints: San Martin, San Francisco, San Lorenzo, San Luis. The banner of the general flagship “San Martin” depicted the face of Christ, and at the stern a banner with the Blessed Virgin fluttered. Everything pointed to the fact that God himself was bringing England a well-deserved punishment... But real circumstances cast doubt on the capabilities of the Armada. While the ships were being patched up at the docks, the admiral wrote to the king that “going on the offensive, even with forces at your disposal that are by no means superior to the enemy, is a risky business, and when there are fewer of these forces, especially since people lack experience, this risk increases many times over.” . According to him, “few of my people (if any) are capable of rising to the occasion of the task assigned to them.” Having methodically listed all the difficulties, the Duke of Medina concluded the letter with the words: “The risk could be avoided by concluding an honorable peace with the enemy.”
Philip, although famous for no less caution than his grandee, was still dissatisfied with the news he received. The fact is that this outstanding monarch was characterized by another remarkable quality - mysticism of nature on the verge of visionaryism. Many of his contemporaries wrote about this - from Lope de Vega to Margaret of Navarre. The king came to the conclusion that God himself, who protects Spain as the most faithful of his countries, is testing the strength of her faith. Philip was so convinced of this that he decided to play completely openly: relying on God, he even divulged the size of his forces - official lists of Armada ships circulated throughout the cities of Europe. On July 12, an order came from Escorial to continue the campaign at all costs.
And with England, which was in despondency, upon receiving accurate information about the start of the campaign, an unexpected metamorphosis suddenly occurred. Militia were formed everywhere, and by June thousands of new and trained foot soldiers had gathered at Tilbury. “It was nice to watch the soldiers on the march,” testifies a contemporary. “Their faces were flushed, warlike cries were heard from everywhere, people almost danced with joy.” The persecution of Catholics, “accomplices of the aggressor,” spontaneously intensified. Suspicious people were immediately detained, despite the presumption of innocence enshrined in the Magna Carta (in fact, England revived this legal norm, forgotten since Roman times). The ship carpenters worked day and night - the sounds of axes did not stop in the shipyards. The result was an unprecedented increase in the combat power of the fleet in such a short time. 140 new ships were ready to meet the Armada. And in the spring of 1588, the royal fleet consisted of only 34 ships.
Strange victory
On July 19, from St. Michael's Hill near Glastonbury in Somerset (where King Arthur and Queen Guinevere are said to be buried), someone noticed a growing black dot on the horizon. The “bickford cord” of the signal fires ran - within a few hours, all of England knew that the Spanish fleet had reached its shores.
Staff officers advised the Duke of Medina to break through to the enemy’s ports as soon as possible in order to destroy his ships when they were laid up - here powerful artillery would have all the advantages. However, for some reason the admiral rejected the offer - and perhaps this played a fatal role in the history of the Grand Fleet. Be that as it may, a couple of days later, the English flotilla under the command of Francis Drake and Lord Charles Howard suddenly attacked the clumsy Armada and immediately captured two galleons - the Rosario and the San Salvador. The Spaniards tried to take cover behind the Isle of Wight to regroup, but the enemy did not allow them to come to their senses, repeating the attack from three sides at once in the narrow strait. The admiral hesitated, fired back, and in the end still ordered to leave for the open sea, and then, for lack of a more convenient harbor nearby, to French Calais.
As for the Duke of Parma with his land corps (the number of which, due to epidemics, had decreased from 30,000 to 16,000), at the same time in Dunkirk he was cut off from the Armada by a squadron of Dutch rebels that arrived in time. The commander counted on the help of Spanish ships, but the Duke of Medina, depressed by previous events in English waters, decided to refrain from fighting for now. However, he did not succeed.
On the night of July 29, 1588, this fascinating historical drama reached its climax. A terrifying sight suddenly appeared before the Spanish sailors: eight large ships, filled with sulfur, tar, tar and gunpowder, set on fire, were moving straight towards the ships of the Armada, which were anchored in the Strait of Dover, opposite Calais. In confusion, the Spaniards began to raise anchors and break through in all directions. No one was following the course of the flagship San Martin, and he had to go to the open sea... to meet the British.
The largest naval battle of the 16th century took place near Gravelines, a fortified fort on the border of the Spanish Netherlands and France. It was here that the great victory over the Spanish fleet is believed to have been won. However, if you take a closer look at what happened off the Flemish coast, you will notice several facts that contradict this opinion. A great and final victory does not emerge from them.
“We spent so much gunpowder, spent so much time in battle, and it was all in vain,” said an English artillery officer immediately after the Battle of Gravelin. And indeed: they usually remember that the British did not lose a single ship at that time, but the Spanish losses were by no means crushing: only ten ships were destroyed, five were captured, and even then they were damaged. If it had not been for Drake's ingenious attack at Calais, they would never have left the port.
At Gravelin, however, it became clear that the British were superior to the Spaniards in naval art. During the Armada's maneuvers in the English Channel, English sailors studied its tactics well. At the very beginning of the battle, they came close to the Spanish ships, knowing that immediately after the first shot the Spaniards, almost in full force, would run to equip themselves and prepare for boarding. So, from a minimum distance, the British artillerymen managed to fire several targeted shots at the enemy at a time when there was no one on the decks, and the enemy ships stopped maneuvering for a while. As a result, the destruction caused did not allow the soldiers of the Duke of Medina to rush into the attack at all.
And yet it is unlikely that this superiority of the British and the very result of the Battle of Gravelines played a major role in the decision of the Duke of Medina to return to Spain. The actively maneuvering English fleet in the English Channel would still not have been destroyed; the supply of the gigantic Armada was poor, the sailors were sick, and the mortality rate increased. The clash was forced on the admiral, like Borodino on Kutuzov, and as soon as it became clear that it was unlikely to emerge victorious, right in the middle of the battle he ordered a retreat north, towards Scotland.
The departure of the Spanish ships did not resemble a stampede in any way; it took place in a completely organized and calm manner. But the British just did not feel the strength to pursue the enemy. Moreover, for several days after the battle they were not left with anxious feelings. They expected the return of the enemy fleet the very next day, with a change in the wind. Without waiting, they began to fear an imminent invasion by the Duke of Parma: English troops remained at the mouth of the Thames in order to protect London from landings for a long time.
And when it finally became clear that the danger had passed, it was there that the queen and the court went on August 8 - on a whole flotilla of small river ships with heralds and guard officers. When landing on shore, the crowd greeted Her Majesty with thousands of enthusiastic exclamations - this continued, according to an eyewitness, for several hours, despite the fact that Elizabeth had previously asked everyone to refrain from expressing loyal feelings. Even the soldiers guarding the glorious tent chanted: “God save the Queen!”
On the morning of August 9, Elizabeth made an inspired speech to the people - it was included in the textbook annals of English-speaking peoples, right down to school textbooks, and was reproduced in dozens of historical films: “My beloved people! — The Queen, in a military-mythological manner, put on a silver cuirass and took a silver club in her hands. — We were convinced by those who care about our safety to beware of speaking before an armed crowd for fear of betrayal; but I assure you that I do not want to live without trusting my loyal and beloved people. Let the tyrants be afraid, but I have always behaved in such a way that, God knows, I trusted my power and safety to the faithful hearts and good will of my subjects; and therefore I am now among you, as you see, at this time, not for rest and pleasure, but fully determined, in the midst of battle, to live and die among you; lay down for my God, and my kingdom, and my people, my honor and my blood, turning to dust.” — The sharp (according to Drake) voice of the 55-year-old woman was clearly heard only nearby, but her appearance made a great impression: “I know I have a body, and this is the body of a weak and helpless woman, but I have the heart and stomach of a king, and I am full of contempt that Padua, or Spain, or any other monarch of Europe should dare to invade the borders of my kingdom; and before any dishonor befalls me, I myself will take up arms, I myself will become your general, judge and one who rewards each of you according to your merits on the battlefield... We will soon achieve a glorious victory over the enemies of my God, my kingdom and my people."
In conclusion, Elizabeth promised to forgive the soldiers all debts - personal and official. This statement naturally caused a storm of enthusiasm.
Meanwhile, the Invincible Armada met on its way that true disaster that dealt it a decisive blow. It was not English ships, but a storm off the coast of Scotland in September 1588 that finished her off. Some of the ships strayed from the main group and landed on the Irish shores. Many sailors remained there. Other ships tried to catch up with the Armada, while others chose to break through to their home ports on their own. 67 ships and about 10,000 people reached the fatherland.
But new reasons for sadness appeared for the British as well. Epidemics of typhus and dysentery broke out in the fleet - they claimed 7,000 lives in a few months. The treasury calculated the losses from the terrible strain of forces before the war with the Armada. The money ran out just when it was time to reward the soldiers. The debt forgiveness promised by the monarch also did not happen.
Symmetrical answer
Nevertheless, mass celebrations on the occasion of salvation from the mortal threat continued. “I came, I saw, I ran” - people walked around with such posters, celebrating a wonderful victory. Everyone believed that only the grace of God (“God is an Englishman,” said Francis Bacon) helped them cope with the fleet, which, according to the poet, “was hard for the wind to carry and the ocean groaned under its weight.” Perhaps this was one of the main consequences of the defeats of the Armada: from now on, a moment appeared in Protestant history that showed the location of higher powers.
And at the court during the days of public festivities, intense work was going on - they were preparing to send their own Armada to the Iberian Peninsula! "Reply symmetrically" was entrusted to Drake and Sir John Norris. But instead of destroying the remains of the Armada, which were being repaired in the northern ports of Spain, the admirals went to the south of the peninsula in search of a larger sum of money for themselves. The historical injustice lies in the fact that the defeat of the English Armada in this campaign turned out to be no less crushing than the defeat of the Spanish Armada, but little is known about it outside Spain. First, the British were crippled by illness; the attack on Lisbon encountered a well-organized defense and failed. In the end, having struggled north through the storms, the fleet returned home with significant losses.
In general, the 90s of the 16th century were marked by Spain’s successful defense of seemingly shaky positions. Attempts by English commanders to build on their success were met with skillful resistance. Moreover, they beat the British with their own weapons. Both literally and figuratively: the fleet of Philip II was able to very quickly adapt to new tactics of naval combat - the one that their enemy used in the Battle of Gravelines. The Spaniards abandoned massive cannons and heavy, clumsy ships. They began to build lighter ships equipped with long-range guns, which made it possible to fire several dozen shots in one battle. After the defeat of the Armada, paradoxically, the Spanish squadrons became much stronger than ever before. This was evidenced by the failures of English expeditions to America in the next decade. In 1595, Drake was defeated and died off the coast of Panama.
The decline of Spain, which really began in the next, 17th century, was only indirectly related to the defeat of the Armada. Internal reasons played a much larger role. First of all, the policy of the successors of Philip II, who, as if in mockery of him, were distinguished by their extravagance and declared the government bankrupt several times. In addition, the huge amount of precious metals coming from America caused hyperinflation in the economy.
And for England, the victory over the Great Armada was only a step towards the status of mistress of the seas. She was unable to take another step - to end Spanish domination in the Atlantic in a short time. This opportunity was partly deprived of it by Francis Drake, who “failed” the war with Spain in the 1590s. It took the next 150 years to correct his mistake.
The Invincible Armada was a large military flotilla created in Spain. It consisted of about 130 ships. The flotilla was formed in 1586-1588. Let us next consider in what year the defeat of the Invincible Armada took place. More on this later in the article.
Target
Before telling why and when the defeat of the Invincible Armada happened, it is necessary to describe the situation that was happening at that time. For decades, English privateers sank and robbed Spanish ships. This brought enormous losses to the country. Thus, in 1582, Spain suffered losses amounting to more than 1,900,000 ducats. Another reason why the decision to create a flotilla was made was the support of the Dutch uprising by the Queen of England. Philip II, the monarch of Spain, considered it his duty to help the English Catholics who fought against the Protestants. In this regard, almost 180 clergy were present on the ships of the flotilla. Moreover, during recruitment, every sailor and soldier had to confess and take communion. For their part, the rebel British hoped for victory. They hoped that they would be able to destroy the Spanish monopoly trade with the New World, as well as spread Protestant ideas in Europe. Thus, both sides had their own interest in this event.
Trek plan
The King of Spain ordered the flotilla to approach the English Channel. There she was supposed to unite with the 30,000-strong army of the Duke of Parma. The troops were stationed in Flanders. With their combined forces they were to march across the English Channel to Essex. After this, a march to London was planned. The Spanish king hoped that the Catholics would leave Elizabeth and join him. However, this plan was not fully thought out. In particular, it did not take into account the shallow waters, which prevented the ships from approaching the shore to take on board the Duke's army. In addition, the Spaniards did not take into account the power. And, of course, Philip could not even imagine that the defeat of the Invincible Armada would happen.
Command
Alvaro de Bazan was appointed head of the Armada. He was rightfully considered the best Spanish admiral. It was he who was the initiator and organizer of the flotilla. As contemporaries later said, if he had led the ships, it is unlikely that the defeat of the Invincible Armada would have happened. The year 1588, however, was the last in his life for the admiral. He died at the age of 63, before the flotilla went to sea. Alonso Perez de Guzman was appointed instead. He was not an experienced navigator, but had excellent organizational skills. They allowed him to quickly find a common language with experienced captains. Thanks to their joint efforts, a powerful fleet was created, which was supplied with provisions and equipped with everything necessary. In addition, the command staff developed a system of signals, orders and order of battle, uniform for the entire multinational army.
Features of the organization
The Armada consisted of about 130 ships, 30.5 thousand people, 2,430 guns. The main forces were divided into six squadrons:
The Armada also included four Neapolitan galleasses and the same number of Portuguese galleys. In addition, the flotilla included a large number of reconnaissance ships, for messenger service and with supplies. Food supplies included millions of biscuits, 400,000 pounds of rice, 600,000 pounds of corned beef and salted fish, 40,000 gallons of butter, 14,000 barrels of wine, 6,000 bags of beans, 300,000 pounds of cheese. Of the ammunition on the ships, there were 124 thousand cannonballs and 500 thousand powder charges.
Start of the hike
The flotilla left Lisbon harbor on May 29, 1588. However, on the way she was overtaken by a storm, which drove the ships to La Coruña, a port in northwestern Spain. There the sailors had to repair ships and replenish food supplies. The flotilla commander was concerned about the shortage of provisions and the illnesses of his sailors. In this regard, he frankly wrote to Philip that he doubted the success of the campaign. However, the monarch insisted that the admiral follow the set course and not deviate from the plan. Two months after staying in Lisbon harbor, the flotilla reached the English Channel.
Failed meeting with the Duke of Parma
The admiral of the flotilla strictly followed Philip's orders and sent the ships to the shore to receive the troops. While awaiting a response from the Duke, the commander of the Armada ordered to anchor off Calais. This position was very vulnerable, which was to the advantage of the British. That same night they sent 8 ships with explosives and flammable materials on fire to the Spanish ships. Most of the captains began to cut the ropes and feverishly tried to escape. Subsequently, strong winds and powerful currents carried the Spaniards to the north. They were unable to return back to the Duke of Parma. The next day the decisive battle took place.
Place and date of the defeat of the Invincible Armada
The flotilla was defeated by Anglo-Dutch maneuverable light ships. They were commanded by Charles Howard. Several military clashes took place in the English Channel, which ended with the Battle of Gravelines. So, in what year was the defeat of the Invincible Armada? The flotilla did not last long. She was defeated in the same year in which the campaign began - in 1588. The battles at sea lasted two weeks. The Spanish flotilla failed to regroup. Collisions with enemy ships took place in extremely difficult conditions. The constantly changing wind created great difficulties. The main skirmishes took place at Portland Bill, Start Point, and the Isle of Wight. During the battles, the Spaniards lost about 7 ships. The final defeat of the Invincible Armada took place at Calais. Refusing further invasion, the admiral led the ships north, across the Atlantic, along the west coast of Ireland. At the same time, enemy ships followed her at a short distance, moving along the eastern coast of England.
Return to Spain
It was very difficult. After the battles, many ships were badly damaged and barely stayed afloat. Off the northwest coast of Ireland, the flotilla was caught in a two-week storm. Many ships crashed into rocks or went missing during it. In the end, on September 23, the first ships, after long wanderings, reached the north of Spain. Only 60 ships managed to return home. Human losses were estimated from 1/3 to 3/4 of the number of crews. A huge number of people died from wounds and diseases, many drowned. Even those who managed to return home practically died of hunger, since all food supplies were depleted. One of the ships ran aground in Laredo because the sailors did not even have the strength to lower the sails and anchor.
Meaning
The defeat of the Invincible Armada brought great losses to Spain. The date when this event occurred will forever remain in the history of the country as one of the most tragic. However, the defeat did not lead to an immediate collapse of Spanish power at sea. The 90s of the 16th century were generally characterized by fairly successful campaigns. Thus, the British attempt to invade Spanish waters with their Armada ended in a crushing defeat. The battle took place in 1589. Two years later, Spanish ships defeated the British in the Atlantic Ocean in several battles. All these victories, however, could not compensate for the losses that the defeat of the Invincible Armada brought to the country. Spain learned an extremely important lesson from this unsuccessful campaign. Subsequently, the country abandoned the clumsy and heavy ships in favor of lighter ships equipped with long-range weapons.
Conclusion
The defeat of the Invincible Armada (1588) buried all hope of restoring Catholicism in England. The involvement of this country to one degree or another in the foreign policy activities of Spain was also out of the question. This, in fact, meant that Philip’s position in the Netherlands would sharply deteriorate. As for England, for it the defeat of the Spanish flotilla was the first step towards gaining supremacy at sea. For Protestants, this event marked the end of the expansion of the Habsburg Empire and the widespread spread of Catholicism. In their eyes, this was a manifestation of God's will. Many people living in Protestant Europe at that time believed that only Heavenly intervention helped to cope with the flotilla, which, as one of his contemporaries said, was difficult for the wind to carry, and the ocean groaned under its weight.
For decades, English privateers sank and robbed Spanish ships. This brought enormous losses to the country. Thus, in 1582, Spain suffered losses amounting to more than 1,900,000 ducats. Another reason why the decision to create a flotilla was made was the support of the Dutch uprising by Elizabeth the First, Queen of England. Philip II, the monarch of Spain, considered it his duty to help the English Catholics who fought against the Protestants. In this regard, almost 180 clergy were present on the ships of the flotilla. Moreover, during recruitment, every sailor and soldier had to confess and take communion. For their part, the rebel British hoped for victory. They hoped that they would be able to destroy the Spanish monopoly trade with the New World, as well as spread Protestant ideas in Europe. Thus, both sides had their own interest in this event.
The King of Spain ordered the flotilla to approach the English Channel. There she was supposed to unite with the 30,000-strong army of the Duke of Parma. The troops were stationed in Flanders. With their combined forces they were to march across the English Channel to Essex. After this, a march to London was planned. The Spanish king hoped that the Catholics would leave Elizabeth and join him. However, this plan was not fully thought out. In particular, it did not take into account the shallow waters, which prevented the ships from approaching the shore to take on board the Duke's army. In addition, the Spaniards did not take into account the power of the English fleet. And, of course, Philip could not even imagine that the defeat of the Invincible Armada would happen.
Alvaro de Bazan was appointed head of the Armada. He was rightfully considered the best Spanish admiral. It was he who was the initiator and organizer of the flotilla. As contemporaries later said, if he had led the ships, it is unlikely that the defeat of the Invincible Armada would have happened. The year 1588, however, was the last in his life for the admiral. He died at the age of 63, before the flotilla went to sea. Alonso Perez de Guzman was appointed instead. He was not an experienced navigator, but had excellent organizational skills. They allowed him to quickly find a common language with experienced captains. Thanks to their joint efforts, a powerful fleet was created, which was supplied with provisions and equipped with everything necessary. In addition, the command staff developed a system of signals, orders and order of battle, uniform for the entire multinational army.
The Armada consisted of about 130 ships, 30.5 thousand people, 2,430 guns. The main forces were divided into six squadrons:
1) "Castile".
2) "Portugal".
3) "Bizkaia".
4) "Gipuzkoa".
5) "Andalusia".
6) "Levant".
The Armada also included four Neapolitan galleasses and the same number of Portuguese galleys. In addition, the flotilla included a large number of reconnaissance ships, for messenger service and with supplies. Food supplies included millions of biscuits, 400,000 pounds of rice, 600,000 pounds of corned beef and salted fish, 40,000 gallons of butter, 14,000 barrels of wine, 6,000 bags of beans, 300,000 pounds of cheese. Of the ammunition on the ships, there were 124 thousand cannonballs and 500 thousand powder charges.
The flotilla left Lisbon harbor on May 29, 1588. However, on the way she was overtaken by a storm, which drove the ships to La Coruña, a port in northwestern Spain. There the sailors had to repair ships and replenish food supplies. The flotilla commander was concerned about the shortage of provisions and the illnesses of his sailors. In this regard, he frankly wrote to Philip that he doubted the success of the campaign. However, the monarch insisted that the admiral follow the set course and not deviate from the plan. Two months after staying in Lisbon harbor, the flotilla reached the English Channel.
photo: Spanish King Philip II, 1580 The admiral of the flotilla strictly followed Philip's orders and sent the ships to the shore to receive the troops. While awaiting a response from the Duke, the commander of the Armada ordered to anchor off Calais. This position was very vulnerable, which was to the advantage of the British. That same night they sent 8 ships with explosives and flammable materials on fire to the Spanish ships. Most of the captains began to cut the ropes and feverishly tried to escape. Subsequently, strong winds and powerful currents carried the Spaniards to the north. They were unable to return back to the Duke of Parma. The next day the decisive battle took place.
The flotilla was defeated by Anglo-Dutch maneuverable light ships. They were commanded by Charles Howard. Several military clashes took place in the English Channel, which ended with the Battle of Gravelines. So, in what year was the defeat of the Invincible Armada? The flotilla did not last long. She was defeated in the same year in which the campaign began - in 1588. The battles at sea lasted two weeks. The Spanish flotilla failed to regroup. Collisions with enemy ships took place in extremely difficult conditions. The constantly changing wind created great difficulties. The main skirmishes took place at Portland Bill, Start Point, and the Isle of Wight. During the battles, the Spaniards lost about 7 ships. The final defeat of the Invincible Armada took place at Calais. Refusing further invasion, the admiral led the ships north, across the Atlantic, along the west coast of Ireland. At the same time, enemy ships followed her at a short distance, moving along the eastern coast of England.
It was very difficult. After the battles, many ships were badly damaged and barely stayed afloat. Off the northwest coast of Ireland, the flotilla was caught in a two-week storm. Many ships crashed into rocks or went missing during it. In the end, on September 23, the first ships, after long wanderings, reached the north of Spain. Only 60 ships managed to return home. Human losses were estimated from 1/3 to 3/4 of the number of crews. A huge number of people died from wounds and diseases, many drowned. Even those who managed to return home practically died of hunger, since all food supplies were depleted. One of the ships ran aground in Laredo because the sailors did not even have the strength to lower the sails and anchor.
The defeat of the Invincible Armada brought great losses to Spain. The date when this event occurred will forever remain in the history of the country as one of the most tragic. However, the defeat did not lead to an immediate collapse of Spanish power at sea. The 90s of the 16th century were generally characterized by fairly successful campaigns. Thus, the British attempt to invade Spanish waters with their Armada ended in a crushing defeat. The battle took place in 1589. Two years later, Spanish ships defeated the British in the Atlantic Ocean in several battles. All these victories, however, could not compensate for the losses that the defeat of the Invincible Armada brought to the country. Spain learned an extremely important lesson from this unsuccessful campaign. Subsequently, the country abandoned the clumsy and heavy ships in favor of lighter ships equipped with long-range weapons.
The defeat of the Invincible Armada (1588) buried all hope of restoring Catholicism in England. The involvement of this country to one degree or another in the foreign policy activities of Spain was also out of the question. This, in fact, meant that Philip’s position in the Netherlands would sharply deteriorate. As for England, for it the defeat of the Spanish flotilla was the first step towards gaining supremacy at sea. For Protestants, this event marked the end of the expansion of the Habsburg Empire and the widespread spread of Catholicism. In their eyes, this was a manifestation of God's will. Many people living in Protestant Europe at that time believed that only Heavenly intervention helped to cope with the flotilla, which, as one of his contemporaries said, was difficult for the wind to carry, and the ocean groaned under its weight.
The defeat of the Invincible Armada in 1588 was the most important event in European history.
He shook Spain’s position at sea and deprived it of its monopoly on trade with the New World, but that’s not all: Protestant England managed to defeat the most powerful and formidable fleet of the Catholic world.
From that moment on, Protestantism began to spread more rapidly throughout the world, and England became a strong trading power.
"Invincible armada"
The Spanish king Philip II created his “Armada” to finally cope with his enemy in the Anglo-Spanish War. He planned to conquer England, landing in Essex and from there heading towards London.
For his goal, he was going to unite his own army with the 30,000-strong army of the Duke of Parma, his ally. The fleet assembled by the king was huge and clumsy. These were 108 armed merchant ships, accompanied by 22 galleons.
The ships had huge reserves of provisions intended for more than 30 thousand personnel of the Armada. These included:
- Sailors and officers;
- Nobles;
- Slave rowers;
- Doctors;
- Priests.
The clergy were supposed to be one of the most important "departments" as they were supposed to support the English Catholics who opposed the Protestant royal family and persuade the English Protestants to convert to Catholicism. Recruits who wanted to go on a campaign were required to confess and receive communion.
First failures
From the very beginning, the Spanish fleet was plagued by misfortunes. Shortly after leaving Lisbon, a storm broke out, driving the ships into the port of La Coruña. It turned out that there was not enough provisions, and a significant number of soldiers fell ill.
The Duke of Medina Sidonia, the commander-in-chief of the “Invincible Armada,” wrote to the king about the problems, but he ordered to move on, no matter what. It also turned out that the ships could not approach the possessions of the Duke of Parma to take his soldiers on board because of the shallow waters. However, the Spanish ships approached the English Channel and positioned themselves in a crescent.
This formation made it possible to successfully operate against the more maneuverable English fleet. The British attacked from the leeward side, but for a long time they could not break the Spanish formation. Only the Battle of Calais changed the situation, in which the British managed to get close to the Spanish ships at a sufficient distance.
The day after it, the Battle of Gravelines took place, which decided the outcome of the battle: the battered “Invincible Armada,” which had run out of ammunition, hastily retreated. Along the way, strong storms broke out, which almost destroyed the remnants of the Spanish fleet. But the disaster passed, thanks to which the Duke of Medina Sidonia managed to withdraw the ships to Spain. Storms and storms plagued the Spanish fleet even at the height of the campaign, making military operations difficult.
Meaning
The power of Spain was shaken, but at that time it was not felt strongly: the kingdom’s fleet successfully withstood subsequent military conflicts - in particular, it repelled the “symmetrical” campaign of English ships against Spain. The Spaniards learned a useful lesson from the fate of the “Invincible Armada” - they modernized their fleet, replacing large and clumsy ships with lighter and more maneuverable ones, equipped with more modern weapons.