Language is first and foremost a means of social communication, a means of expression and understanding. Communication (communication - lat. сommunicatio - message, connection) is a specific form of interaction between people, determined by the need for the exchange of information and the implementation of joint activities. The need for communication is biological in nature. Communication is characteristic of all living beings, but it is in human society, where the need for communication is one of the main ones and plays an important role, that it takes on the most perfect forms and becomes conscious. In human society, communication acts as a process of establishing contact between members of a particular society, which develops in all spheres of life of the team and its members.

Communication, as defined by A.A. Leontiev, this is a system of purposeful and motivated processes that ensure the interaction of people in collective activities, realizing social and personal, psychological relationships and using specific means, first of all - language. Cognitive aspect of language appears in three situations of its use. ... Firstly, language as a tool of social cognition, as a tool for society to obtain new knowledge. It is the linguistic nature of human thinking in its developed forms that provides for a person the opportunity to operate with images and concepts, form judgments and make inferences, and as a result of all this, without directly turning to objective reality, receive new knowledge about it. Secondly, language is a tool of individual cognition, a way for an individual to solve a cognitive problem. ... Thirdly, language is a means of “disobjectification” of objective reality, the most important tool for the socialization of the individual.

As A.A. Leontyev notes, communication is one of the types of activity. “This does not mean that communication in all cases acts as an independent activity; it is important that it can be such, although it can also act as a component, an integral part (and at the same time a condition) of another, non-communicative activity. And if we understand communication as an activity, then it is obvious that the axiom is, firstly, its intentionality (the presence of a specific goals, independent or subordinate to other goals, the presence of a specific motive); secondly, its effectiveness is a measure of the coincidence of the achieved result with the intended goal; thirdly, normativity, expressed, first of all, in the fact of mandatory social control over the course and results of the act of communication.”

Language is a system of signs and symbols that designate objects and phenomena of the surrounding reality. The main element of language is the word, which is the sign or symbol adopted to designate certain realities of the world around a person. The word is associated with consciousness, which reflects this or that object that exists in objective reality or in the human imagination. Speech- This activity associated with thinking, which is possible only in the presence of language. Speech is the process of using language, i.e. language is realized through speech. Human speech arises in response to the need to communicate with someone or communicate something. The original function of human speech is communicative. Speech is a tool for communicative purposes. Speech communication – the process of establishing and maintaining targeted, direct or indirect contact between people using language. The basic unit of speech communication is utterance as a unit of meaning. The constitutive feature of an utterance is its appeal, targeting.

Speech performs certain functions, each of which has a specific purpose. The main functions of speech are the following:

Ø indicative(indicative), the purpose of which is to convey a message to another in order to indicate a certain object, convey information or encourage the addressee to take action;

Ø predicative, the purpose of which is to express one’s own opinions on the issue;

Ø emotionally expressive, the purpose of which is to express one’s own attitude towards an object or situation;

Ø cognitive, its goal is cognition, expression of the activity of consciousness in the parameters of nomination (designation), reference (definition), evaluation;

Ø regulatory, the purpose of which is programming and control of behavior and actions;

Ø semantic(generalization function), the purpose of which is to convey the meaning hidden in a thought that reflects the meaningful properties of objects, phenomena, actions, and relationships between them in the external world.

The use of language in a variety of real life situations is speech behavior, a set of speech acts. Speech behavior is determined by one or another type of communication into which communicants enter.

Communication is a complex process of interaction between people, which is possible under certain conditions. One of the conditions for communication is the presence of components or components of communication. The components of communication are: 1) participants - communicators; 2) subject of communication; 3) means of communication (verbal and non-verbal, or verbal and non-verbal).

Each of the components included in the complex process of communication performs its own function. Communicators (communication must involve at least two people - the subject - the one who addresses, and the addressee - the one who is addressed) enter into communication with a certain purpose, which involves satisfying emerging needs (social, cognitive, creative, aesthetic and a number of others). The goals of communication can be very different: transferring specific information, obtaining new knowledge, establishing personal or business relationships, organizing joint activities or games, etc.

Subject of communication, i.e. chosen by communicators subject, which should be of interest to each of the communicants for more fruitful communication. The subject of communication is reflected in its content, representing information that is transmitted by participants in communication to each other. Human communication is multidimensional and rich in content, since it covers all spheres of human life. The content of communication reflects information related to universal human experience, the worldview of man and society, moral principles, ethical and aesthetic ideals formed in a particular culture.

Communication means- verbal and non-verbal. Verbal means of communication - verbal. In the process of communication, verbal (or verbal) means are most fully used to convey information. After all, language arose as an element of communication, an effective means of communication through which people come to mutual understanding. “Language as a means of communication is the most differentiated and most productive instrument of human understanding. It is not just a means of expressing thoughts and feelings. In the process of acquiring language, we also acquire culture, which in turn shapes our perceptions, thought processes and behavior. And since culture can be understood as communication, language is a communicative process in its purest form in every society known to us.”

Speech is the main method of communication inherent only to humans. However, the transfer of information is possible not only through verbal (verbal), but also non-verbal communication, which uses kinetic speech. Kinetic speech – nonverbal means of communication in the form of expressive movements of various parts of the human body. Nonverbal means of communication include facial expressions, gestures, postures, clothing, hairstyles, even objects around us, since they all represent a type of message called “nonverbal message.” Nonverbal messages can be encoded through: 1) expressive body movements - the so-called expressive behavior of a person (facial expressions, gestures, postures, etc.); 2) sound design of speech (pitch, volume, speed, rhythm); 3) a certain organized microenvironment surrounding a person (i.e., the space that an individual can control or change: from the furnishings of an apartment to the distance at which he prefers to talk with an interlocutor); 4) the use of material objects that have symbolic meaning (for example, symbols).

Nonverbal extralinguistic communication has a number of features that fundamentally distinguish it from verbal linguistic communication, which gives grounds to distinguish it as a special information channel of the general communication system. These features are as follows:

Ø polysensory nature of non-verbal communication, i.e. its implementation simultaneously through different senses (hearing, vision, smell, etc.);

Ø evolutionary historical antiquity compared to verbal speech;

Ø independence from the semantics of speech (words can mean one thing, but voice intonation – another);

Ø significant involuntary and subconscious;

Ø independence from language barriers;

Ø features of acoustic coding means;

Ø features of psychophysiological mechanisms of perception (decoding by the brain).

Nonverbal communication is the exchange of nonverbal messages between people, as well as their interpretation. Each culture has its own sign language, body language, and its own interpretations of specific non-verbal messages. Nonverbal means sometimes replace verbal ones (save them) or complement their meaning. The following features of nonverbal communication are highlighted: 1) situational nature; 2) synthetic; 3) involuntariness, spontaneity of many non-verbal actions.

“Communication” refers to the process of transmitting speech information, which involves a one-way information connection between a subject and an object, which is monological. “Communication” refers to the process of interaction between subjects, which is two-way and dialogical (according to M.S. Kanan). Currently, the concepts of “communication” and “communication” in the scientific literature are used as synonymous, since both communication and communication use speech.

The multifunctionality of communication allows us to highlight the following aspects of communication:

Ø informational, in which communication is considered as a type of personal communication that exchanges information between communicants;

Ø interactive, where communication is analyzed as the interaction of individuals in the process of their cooperation;

Ø epistemological, when a person acts as a subject and object of sociocultural knowledge;

Ø axiological, which involves the study of communication as a process of exchange of values;

Ø normative, revealing the place and role of communication in the process of normative regulation of individual behavior, as well as the process of transmission and consolidation of behavioral stereotypes;

Ø semiotic, in which communication acts as a specific sign system and as an intermediary in the functioning of various sign systems;

Ø practical, where the communication process is considered as an exchange of performance results, abilities, skills and abilities.

Speech communication, which is the unity of the information and communicative aspects of speech activity, occurs when information passes from the subject (sender), who encodes a message through signs or signals, to the addressee (recipient), who is to decode this message. Speech acquires a certain meaning and can be understood only in the structure of a non-speech context. Context(or situation) are the circumstances in which a specific event occurs. A code in speech communication is the language or its variety (dialect, slang, style) that is used by the participants in a given communicative act. An obligatory structural element of speech communication is feedback, which involves the listeners' reaction to the speaker's statement, the absence of which leads to the destruction of communication.

In the process of verbal communication, social-role and psychological components play an important role. TO psychological The structural moments of the act of speech communication include communicative intention, design and purpose, i.e. motivational component, which determines what, why and why the author of the statement wants to say, as well as the understanding of the message, i.e. cognitive component. Communicative intent(or communicative intention) is the desire to enter into communication with another. Concept messages are information in its original form that one partner intends to convey to the other, a deep level of generation of a message, at which there is only a vague draft of the upcoming utterance. Understanding a message consists of the recipient's interpretation of the message received.

The social components of a communicative act include the status and situational roles of its participants, as well as the stylistic devices they use. Status role indicates behavior prescribed to a person by his social (age, gender, official, etc.) position or status. At the beginning of each communicative act, its participants are required to have adequate awareness of both their own social role and the role of their partner. Without this, it is impossible to correctly navigate the situation and choose the desired behavior. This can be done when introducing strangers to each other, naming one of his main social roles (my friend, my boss, etc.) or determining this yourself by the person’s appearance and behavior.

Situational roles are revealed already in the process of communication. They significantly influence the nature of the communicative act. Thus, a person can be a leader, striving to play a leading role and control the entire communication process; a mediator who monitors the progress of communication and balances the interests of different people; a capricious child who violates any prohibitions and makes non-standard judgments; a flexible person, ready to adapt to any situation.

Of particular importance are the methods used by interlocutors. speech strategies and tactics. The strategy of verbal communication is understood as the process of building communication aimed at achieving long-term results. The strategy includes planning speech interaction depending on the specific conditions of communication and the personalities of the communicators, as well as the implementation of this plan, i.e. line of conversation. The purpose of the strategy may be to gain authority, influence the worldview, call for action, cooperation, or abstain from any action.

The tactics of verbal communication are understood as a set of techniques for conducting a conversation and a line of behavior at a certain stage within the framework of a separate conversation. It includes specific techniques for attracting attention, establishing and maintaining contact with a partner and influencing him. To manage the flow of a conversation, it is necessary to think through in advance the overall picture and possible options for the development of the conversation, learn to recognize key points at which a change of topic is possible, strive to isolate the methods of speech influence used by the interlocutor, and evaluate his strategy and tactics.

The basis of interpersonal relationships is communication - the need of a person as a social, intelligent being, as a bearer of consciousness.

Communication is a process of interpersonal interaction generated by the needs of interacting subjects and aimed at satisfying these needs. The role and intensity of communication in modern society is constantly increasing, since with an increase in the volume of information, the processes of exchange of this information become more intense, and the number of technical means for such exchange increases. In addition, the number of people whose professional activities are related to communication, i.e., who have professions of the “person-to-person” type, is increasing.

In psychology there are important aspects of communication: content, purpose and means.
Content of communication- This is information that during communication is transmitted from one living being to another. In humans, the content of communication is much broader than in animals. People exchange information with each other that represents knowledge about the world, share their experience, skills and abilities. Human communication is multi-subject and diverse in content.

Purpose of communication- this is what a living being experiences this type of activity for. In animals this may be, for example, a warning about danger. A person has many more goals for communication. And if in animals the goals of communication are usually associated with the satisfaction of biological needs, then in humans they are a means of satisfying many different needs: social, cultural, cognitive, creative, aesthetic, the needs of intellectual growth and moral development, etc.

Communication means- these are methods of encoding, transmitting, processing and decoding information transmitted in the process of communication. Information can be transmitted through direct bodily contact, such as tactile contact with the hands; it can be transmitted and perceived at a distance through the senses, for example by observing the movements of another person or listening to the sound signals produced by him. In addition to all these naturally occurring methods of transmitting information, man also has others invented by himself: language, writing (texts, drawings, diagrams, etc.), as well as all kinds of technical means of recording, transmitting and storing information.

Human communication can be verbal and non-verbal.

Nonverbal– this is communication without the use of linguistic means, i.e. with the help of facial expressions and gestures; its result is tactile, visual, auditory and olfactory images received from another individual.
Verbal communication occurs through some language.

Most nonverbal forms of communication in humans are innate; with their help, a person achieves interaction on an emotional level, not only with his own kind, but also with other living beings. Many of the higher animals (for example, monkeys, dogs, dolphins), just like humans, have the ability to non-verbally communicate with their own kind. Verbal communication is unique to humans. It has much wider possibilities than non-verbal.

Functions communication, according to L. Karpenko’s classification, are as follows:

• contact– establishing contact between communication partners, readiness to receive and transmit information;
• informational– obtaining new information;
• incentive– stimulation of the communication partner’s activity, directing him to perform certain actions;
• coordination– mutual orientation and coordination of actions for organizing joint activities;
• achieving mutual understanding - adequate perception of the meaning of the message, understanding by partners of each other;
• exchange of emotions - arousing the necessary emotional experiences in the partner;
• establishing relationships– awareness of one’s place in the system of role, status, business and other connections of society;
• exerting influence– change in the state of a communication partner – his behavior, plans, opinions, decisions, etc.

IN structure There are three interconnected aspects of communication:

1. communicative – exchange of information between communicating individuals;
2. interactive – interaction between communicating individuals;
3. perceptual – mutual perception of communication partners and the establishment of mutual understanding on this basis.

When they talk about communication in communication, they first of all mean that in the process of communication people exchange with each other various ideas, ideas, interests, feelings, etc. However, in the communication process there is not just the movement of information, as in a cybernetic device, but an active exchange of it. The main feature is that people can influence each other in the process of exchanging information.

The communication process is born on the basis of some joint activity, and the exchange of knowledge, ideas, feelings, etc. assumes that such activity is organized. In psychology, there are two types of interaction: cooperation (cooperation) and competition (conflict).

So, communication is a process of interaction between people, during which interpersonal relationships arise, manifest and are formed. Communication involves the exchange of thoughts, feelings, and experiences. In the process of interpersonal communication, people consciously or unconsciously influence each other's mental state, feelings, thoughts and actions. The functions of communication are very diverse; it is a decisive condition for the development of each person as an individual, the realization of personal goals and the satisfaction of a number of needs. Communication constitutes the internal mechanism of joint activities of people and is the most important source of information for humans.

Russian language and culture of speech(tickets not made or not made in full are highlighted in red)

Speech culture as an educational subject. System of theoretical concepts of speech culture.

Speech culture as an educational subject

The culture of speech is studied in higher educational institutions as an integral part of the cycle of humanities, intended for students of all specialties.

The subject of speech culture as an academic discipline is the norms of the literary language, types of communication, its principles and rules, ethical standards of communication, functional styles of speech, the fundamentals of the art of speech, as well as the difficulties of applying speech norms and problems of the current state of speech culture of society.

The most important objectives of the discipline are:

Consolidating and improving skills in proficiency in the norms of the Russian literary language;

Formation of the communicative competence of a specialist;

Training in professional communication in the field of the chosen specialty;

Development of information search and evaluation skills;

Development of speech skills to prepare for complex professional communication situations (negotiations, discussions, etc.);

Improving the culture of conversational speech, teaching speech means of establishing and maintaining friendly personal relationships.

The main goal of the speech culture course is the formation of an exemplary linguistic personality of a highly educated specialist, whose speech corresponds to the norms accepted in the educated environment and is distinguished by expressiveness and beauty.

The speech culture course is aimed at the formation and development of a future specialist - a participant in professional communication - complex communicative competence in Russian, which is a set of knowledge, skills, abilities, individual initiatives necessary to establish interpersonal contact in socio-cultural, professional (educational, scientific, production, etc.) areas and situations of human activity.

Achieving this goal in full requires not only a careful study of the literature on the topics of the course, but also further self-education, the methods of which this course introduces.

Speech culture includes three aspects:

Normative;

Communicative;

Ethical.

The normative aspect of speech culture is one of the most important, but not the only one. It presupposes knowledge of literary norms and the ability to apply them in speech. However, the effectiveness of communication is not always achieved by correct speech alone. It is important to consider who the text is addressed to, and to take into account the awareness and interests of the addressee. Language has a rich arsenal of tools that allows you to find the right words to explain the essence of the matter to any person. Among the linguistic means, it is necessary to choose those that fulfill the assigned communication tasks with maximum efficiency. The skills of selecting such means constitute the communicative aspect of speech culture.

Compliance with norms of behavior, respect for participants in communication, goodwill, tact and delicacy constitute the ethical side of communication.

Ethical standards constitute a necessary part of speech culture, and speech culture, in turn, is an important part of a person’s general culture.

“So, speech culture is such a choice and such an organization of linguistic means that, in a certain communication situation, while observing modern language norms and communication ethics, make it possible to ensure the greatest effect in achieving the set communicative tasks” - this is how the famous modern linguist E.N defines the concept of speech culture .Shiryaev

Speech culture is a system of speech qualities that makes it exemplary in a given historical period, in a given speech situation.

Basic concepts of speech culture

In order to understand the ways and means of independent development of speech culture, it is necessary to clearly understand the content and scope of the concepts of this discipline.

The central concept of this discipline is the concept of language. Language is “a naturally occurring and developing system of symbolic units expressed in sound form in human society, capable of expressing the entire totality of human concepts and thoughts and intended primarily for the purposes of communication”

The ability to relate sound and meaning is the most important characteristic of language. Language at the same time is a system of signs that replace objects and speech and a set of meanings that concentrate the spiritual experience of people.

The concept of speech is closely related to language. Speech is “specific speaking, occurring over time and expressed in sound (including internal pronunciation) or written form. Speech is usually understood as both the process of speaking itself and the result of this process, i.e. both speech activity and speech works, recorded by memory or writing"

Speech is perceptible, concrete and unique, deliberate and directed towards a specific goal, it is conditioned by the situation, subjective and arbitrary. In speech, the functions of the language appear in various combinations with the predominance of one of them.

Communication between people is both a socio-psychological interaction and a channel for transmitting information. Therefore, textbooks on speech culture use the term communication. Communication is communication between people, the process of exchanging information, a process that supports the functioning of society and interpersonal relationships. Communication consists of communicative acts in which communicants (the author and addressee of the message) participate, generating statements (texts) and interpreting them. The process of communication begins with the intention of the speaker and has the goal of understanding the statement by the addressee.

The result of the speaker's speech activity is a text. A text is a completed speech work (written or oral), the main properties of which are integrity and coherence. The correctness of text construction consists in meeting the requirements of external coherence, internal meaningfulness, the possibility of timely perception, and the implementation of the necessary conditions of communication. The correct perception of the text is ensured not only by language units and their connections, but also by the necessary general background of knowledge.

The concept of speech qualities is important. Speech qualities are properties of speech that ensure the effectiveness of communication and characterize the level of speech culture of the speaker.

In philology there is a distinction

speech culture of the individual;

speech culture of society.

The speech culture of a person is individual. It depends on erudition in the field of speech culture of society and represents the ability to use this erudition. The speech culture of an individual borrows part of the speech culture of society, but at the same time it is broader than the speech culture of society. Correct use of language presupposes your own sense of style, correct and sufficiently developed taste.

Of course, within the framework of the science of speech culture, not only examples of a high level of mastery of literary norms and rules of communication are considered, but also cases of violation of norms both in the speech activity of an individual and in the speech practice of society.

Successful communication between people requires the communicative competence of the participants in such communication. Communicative competence is a set of knowledge, skills and abilities to adequately reflect and perceive reality in various communication situations.

The basic concepts of speech culture are also such concepts as literary language, language norms, style, language standard, linguistic personality, types and forms of speech, speech etiquette.

Morphological norms, their varieties.

Morphological norms require the correct formation of grammatical forms of words of different parts of speech (forms of gender, number, short forms and degrees of comparison of adjectives, etc.). A typical violation of morphological norms is the use of a word in a non-existent or inflectional form that does not correspond to the context ( analyzed image, reigning order, victory over fascism, called Plyushkin a hole). Sometimes you can hear such phrases: railway rail, imported shampoo, customized parcel post, patent leather shoes. There is a morphological error in these phrases - the gender of the nouns is incorrectly formed.

The use of nouns in the plural genitive case. In forms gen. Case endings can include zero endings and –ov/-ev endings.

Names of nationalities and peoples: Bulgarians, Georgians, Gypsies, Romanians, Turkmens, Buryats;

Yakuts, Tajiks, Gypsies, Romanians, Greeks, Mongols

Name of paired items: stockings, trousers, boots, cuffs, shoulder straps, golf; socks, glasses, straps

Name of vegetables and fruits: eggplant, pomegranate, apples; tangerines, tomatoes, oranges, bananas

Comparative forms of adjectives

Simple degree N.f. (imp. singular) + -ee, -ey, -e, -she

Sharp - sharper, long - longer

Compound form of N.f. + “more”/“less”

Hard - harder, weak - less weak

Superlative form of adjectives

Simple: strict(im.p.) + -aysh(-eysh)

Compound + most/most/least/all

Not allowed: the strictest Noun 1)

Names of persons by profession

2)In business speech there are more masculine words than feminine words. For most of the names of new professions included in the sphere of official business use, there is no analogue in the feminine gender: broker, manager, broker. Indeclinable nouns

have the same form for all cases: I enter the metro, I see the metro, I admire the metro.

Among them there are both common nouns (coffee, radio, coat, highway, dressing table) and proper names (Garibaldi, Goethe, Zola, Sochi, Baku). Indeclinable nouns include (Many nouns of foreign origin with final vowels -о, -е, -и, -у, -у and with final stress -а: radio, metro, pince-nez, stew, menu, boa, (novel) by Dumas, (poem) Heine, (city) Oslo.

2. Foreign language surnames denoting female persons and ending with a consonant: (poetry) Aliger, (novel) Voynich.

4. Compound abbreviated words of alphabetic and mixed nature: HPP, VAZ, MSU, SAI. It is important to know the gender of indeclinable nouns in order to avoid mistakes in word agreement.)

3. The concept of communication. Types of communication.

Considering the way of life of various higher animals and humans, we notice that two aspects stand out in it: contacts with nature and contacts with living beings. The first type of contact is activity. The second type of contacts is characterized by the fact that the parties interacting with each other are living beings, organism to organism, exchanging information. This type of intraspecific and interspecific contact is called communication.

Communication is characteristic of all higher living beings, but at the human level it takes on the most perfect forms, becoming conscious and mediated by speech. The following aspects are distinguished in communication: content, goal and means.

Content - This is information that is transmitted from one living being to another in inter-individual contacts. One person can convey information about existing needs to another, counting on potential participation in their satisfaction. Through communication, data about their emotional states (satisfaction, joy, anger, sadness, suffering, etc.) can be transmitted from one living being to another, aimed at setting up another living being for contacts in a certain way. The same information is transmitted from person to person and serves as a means of interpersonal adjustment. Content of communication may become information about the state of the external environment, transmitted from one living being to another, for example, signals about danger or the presence of positive, biologically significant factors somewhere nearby, say, food.

In humans, the content of communication is much broader than in animals. People exchange information with each other that represents knowledge about the world, rich, lifetime experience, knowledge, abilities, skills and abilities. Human communication is multi-subject, it is the most diverse in its internal content.

Purpose of communication- this is what a person experiences this type of activity for. In animals, the purpose of communication may be to encourage another living being to take certain actions, or to warn that it is necessary to refrain from any action. A person’s number of communication goals increases. In addition to those listed above, they include the transfer and receipt of objective knowledge about the world, training and education, coordination of reasonable actions of people in their joint activities, establishment and clarification of personal and business relationships, and much more. If in animals the goals of communication usually do not go beyond satisfying their biological needs, then in humans they are a means of satisfying many different needs: social, cultural, cognitive, creative, aesthetic, the needs of intellectual growth, moral development and a number of others.

No less significant differences funds communication. The latter can be defined as methods of encoding, transmitting, processing and decoding information transmitted in the process of communication from one living being to another.

Encoding information- this is a way of transmitting it from one living being to another. For example, information can be transmitted through direct bodily contacts: touching the body, hands, etc. Information can be transmitted and perceived by people at a distance, through the senses (observation by one person of the movements of another or the perception of sound signals produced by him).

Man, in addition to all these natural methods of transmitting information, has many that are invented and improved by him. This is language and other sign systems, writing in its various types and forms (texts, diagrams, drawings, drawings), technical means of recording, transmitting and storing information (radio and video technology; mechanical, magnetic, laser and other forms of recording).

Depending on the content, goals and means, communication can be divided into several types. In terms of content, it can be presented as material (exchange of objects and products of activity), cognitive (knowledge Exchange), conditioned (exchange of mental or physiological states ), motivational (exchange of motives, goals, interests, motives, needs), active(exchange actions, operations, abilities, skills).

At material communication subjects, being engaged in individual activity, exchange its products, which, in turn, serve as a means of satisfying their actual needs. At conditional communication people exert influence on each other calculated to bring each other into a certain physical or mental state. For example, to cheer you up or, on the contrary, to ruin it. and ultimately - to have a certain impact on each other’s well-being.

Motivational communication has as its content the transfer to each other of certain motives, attitudes or readiness to act in a certain direction.

Illustration cognitive Andactive communication can serve communication related to various types of cognitive or educational activities. Here, information is transmitted from subject to subject that expands horizons, improves and develops abilities.

According to goals, communication is divided into biological And social in accordance with the needs it serves. Biological - This is communication necessary for the maintenance, preservation and development of the body. It is associated with the satisfaction of basic organic needs. Social communication pursues the goals of expanding and strengthening interpersonal contacts, establishing and developing interpersonal relationships, and personal growth of the individual. There are as many private goals of communication as there are subtypes of biological and social needs.

By means of communication can be direct And mediated , direct Andindirect . Direct communication carried out with the help of natural organs given to a living being by nature: arms, head, torso, vocal cords, etc. Indirect communication associated with the use of special means and tools to organize communication and exchange of information. These are either natural objects (a stick, a footprint on the ground, etc.) or cultural ones (sign systems, recordings of symbols on various media, print, radio, television, etc.).

Direct communication involves personal contacts and direct perception of each other by communicating people in the very act of communication, their communication in cases where they see and directly react to each other’s actions. Indirect communication carried out through intermediaries, who may be other people.

Man differs from animals in that he has a special, vital need for communication, and also in the fact that he spends most of his time communicating with other people.

Among the types of communication we can also distinguish business and personal , instrumental and target.

Business conversation usually included as a private moment in any joint activity of people and serves as a means of improving the quality of this activity. Its content is what people are doing, and not the problems that affect their inner world, unlike business

personal communication , on the contrary, it is focused mainly around psychological problems of an internal nature that deeply affect a person’s personality.

Instrumental Can name communication that is not an end in itself, is not stimulated by an independent need, but pursues some other goal other than obtaining satisfaction from the act of communication itself.; Target - This is communication, which in itself serves as a means of satisfying a specific need, in this case the need for communication.

In human life, communication does not exist as a separate process or an independent form of activity. It is included in individual or group practical activity, which can neither arise nor be realized without intensive and versatile communication.

The result of communication is the mutual influence of people on each other.

The most important types of communication among people are verbal and non-verbal. Non-verbal communication does not involve the use of sound speech or natural language as a means of communication. Nonverbal- this is communication using facial expressions, gestures and pantomimes, through direct sensory or bodily contacts. These are tactile, visual, auditory, olfactory and other sensations and images received from another person. Most of a person’s nonverbal forms and means of communication are innate and allow him to interact, achieving mutual understanding at the emotional and behavioral levels, not only with his own kind, but also with other living beings. Verbal communication is inherent only to humans and presupposes the acquisition of language as a prerequisite. In terms of its communicative capabilities, it is much richer than all types and forms of nonverbal communication, although in life it cannot completely replace it.

Communication is of great importance in the formation of the human psyche, its development and the formation of reasonable, cultural behavior. Through communication with psychologically developed people, thanks to ample opportunities for learning, a person acquires all his higher cognitive abilities and qualities. Through active communication with developed personalities, he himself turns into a personality.

Communication constitutes the internal mechanism of joint activities of people. The increasing role of communication and the importance of its study is due to the fact that in modern society, decisions are made much more often in direct, immediate communication between people, which were previously made, as a rule, by individual people.

The concept of literary language and literary norms. Reasons and conditions for the formation of literary language norms.

The concept of modern Russian literary language.

Traditionally, the Russian language has been modern since the time of A.S. Pushkin. Modern Russian, one of the richest languages ​​in the world, requires serious, thoughtful study. The high advantages of the Russian language are created by its huge vocabulary, wide ambiguity of words, wealth of synonyms, inexhaustible treasury of word formation, numerous word forms, peculiarities of sounds, mobility of stress, clear and harmonious syntax, and variety of stylistic resources. It is necessary to distinguish between the concepts of the Russian national language and the literary Russian language. The national language is the language of the Russian people; it covers all spheres of people’s speech activity. In contrast, literary language is a narrower concept. Literary language is the highest form of existence of language, an exemplary language. This is a strictly standardized form of the popular national language. Literary language is understood as a language processed by wordsmiths, scientists, and public figures.

The concept of the norm of language. Types of norms of the modern Russian language.

The main feature of a literary language is the norm. A norm is understood as a set of rules for the use of words, their grammatical forms, rules of pronunciation, and word formation that are in force in a given period of a literary language. Types of norms of the modern Russian language:

1) accentological (stress)

2) orthoepic

3) lexical (correct choice of words taking into account their meaning)

4) phraseological (correct use of set expressions)

5) word-formation (formation of words and their structure)

6) orthographic (uniform ways of conveying words in writing using alphabetic and non-alphabetic graphic means)

7) punctuation (regulates the rules for the use of punctuation marks)

8) grammatical (rules for using morphological forms of different parts of speech)

9) syntactic (rules for connecting words in a sentence and phrase)

10) stylistic (style affiliation of linguistic elements)

The process of consolidating a norm is codification. The norm is a moving concept; it changes over time. The accentological norm is the most flexible. Since the norm is influenced by native speakers. The norm is stable, since its main function is to preserve the language. Variation is the existence of parallel ways of expression. The literary norm protects the language from introducing the accidental and the particular into it. It ensures mutual understanding between people.

The main reasons for changing norms are the actions of language laws:

1) the law of economy (language chooses shorter forms of expressing meaning: wet - wet),

2) the law of analogy (one form of expression is likened to another). For example: to be amazed at what → what (by analogy with to be amazed at what); sugar - sugar (the form with the ending –a has become more common),

3) social factors (extra-linguistic). For example: professor "professor's wife" → "female professor", but limited by style.

In the process of long-term development of a language, variants of the language norm arise. Variation is the double use of the same linguistic unit, for example: barge and barge, cottage cheese and cottage cheese, inspectors and inspectors. Variation is the coexistence in a language of parallel modes of expression that have the same language, which is the result of linguistic development: born - born (since the time of Pushkin).

System of communicative qualities of speech. Their connection with the norms of the literary language.

Communicative qualities of speech are objectively existing properties and characteristics of speech that determine the degree of its communicative perfection. Communicative qualities of speech: correctness, accuracy, logic, purity, richness, expressiveness, appropriateness, communicative expediency, tolerance, assertiveness.

All communicative qualities of speech can be divided into structural and functional.

The structural communicative qualities of speech include such properties as correctness, richness and purity.

The functional communicative qualities of speech include its accuracy, consistency, expressiveness, accessibility, effectiveness and appropriateness of speech.

Speech culture is closely related to stylistics. The subject of speech culture is the linguistic structure in its communicative impact. The following communicative qualities of speech are distinguished: 1) correctness (correctness of speech is its compliance with the norms of modern literary language); 2) accuracy (accuracy of speech is, first of all, the strict correspondence of words to the designated objects (phenomena) of reality); 3) logicality of speech (“Subject logicality consists in the correspondence of semantic connections and relations of language units in speech to connections and relationships of objects and phenomena in reality. Conceptual logicality is a reflection of the structure of logical thought and its logical development in the semantic connections of elements of language and speech”); 4) purity (purity can be called “speech in which there are no elements alien to the literary language (primarily words and phrases) and no elements of language rejected by moral norms..."); 5) expressiveness of speech (“expressiveness of speech refers to such features of its structure that maintain the attention and interest of the listener or reader...”); 6) richness - variety of speech; 7) relevance of speech (style, contextual, situational, personal-psychological) - “such a selection, such an organization of language means that make speech meet the goals and conditions of communication.”

Grammatical norms of literary language

Grammatical norms are the rules for using morphological forms of different parts of speech and syntactic structures.

Grammatical norms are divided into morphological and syntactic. Morphological norms determine the correct formation and use of word forms. For example, the normative form of the genitive plural is a lot of stockings, boots, but socks, you can’t say places, business, you shouldn’t change indeclinable nouns: in the new palta, incorrect: more better (simply - better) or the smartest (the smartest or the smartest) . Syntactic norms regulate the formation of phrases and sentences, for example, when managing: you can’t talk shows about... (shows what?), confidence in victory (in victory), the limit of patience has come (patience), pay for the journey (pay h That?); After watching this film, I felt sad (After watching this film, I became sad. Or: I felt sad after watching this film).

Formation of a child’s personality in communication Maya Ivanovna Lisina

Definition of communication

Definition of communication

In the introduction to the book, we already noted the fact that the field of communication has attracted close attention from researchers over the past two to three decades. The nature of communication, its individual and age-related characteristics, mechanisms of flow and change have become the subject of study by philosophers and sociologists (B. D. Parygin, 1971; I. S. Kon, 1971, 1978), psycholinguists (A. A. Leontiev, 1979a, b ), specialists in social psychology (B. F. Porshnev, 1966; G. M. Andreeva, 1980), child and developmental psychology (B. S. Mukhina, 1975; Ya. L. Kolominsky). However, different researchers put far different meanings into the concept of communication. Thus, N.M. Shchelovanov and N.M. Aksarina (Raising Children..., 1955) call the affectionate speech of an adult addressed to an infant communication; M. S. Kagan (1974) considers it legitimate to talk about human communication with nature and with himself. Some researchers (G. A. Ball, V. N. Branovitsky, A. M. Dovgyallo // Thinking and Communication, 1973) recognize the reality of the relationship between man and machine, while others believe that “talking about communication with inanimate objects (for example, with a computer) has only a metaphorical meaning” (B.F. Lomov // Problem of communication..., 1981. P. 8). It is known that many definitions of communication have been proposed abroad. Thus, referring to the data of D. Dens, A. A. Leontiev (1973) reports that in the English-language literature alone, by 1969, 96 definitions of the concept of communication had been proposed.

And yet, inevitably, everyone, starting to write about this phenomenon, gives another, his own definition of communication. We give this definition too.

Communication– interaction of two (or more) people aimed at coordinating and combining their efforts in order to establish relationships and achieve a common result.

We agree with everyone who emphasizes that communication is not just an action, but precisely an interaction: it is carried out between participants, each of whom is equally a carrier of activity and assumes it in their partners (K. Obukhovsky, 1972; A. A. Leontiev, 1979a; K. A. Abulkhanova-Slavskaya // Problem of communication..., 1981).

In addition to the mutual direction of people’s actions during communication, its most important characteristic for us is that each participant is active, that is, acts as a subject. Activity can be expressed in the fact that a person, when communicating, proactively influences his partner, as well as in the fact that the partner perceives his influences and responds to them. When two people communicate, they alternately act and perceive each other's influences. Therefore, we do not include cases of one-sided activity as communication: when, for example, a lecturer addresses an invisible audience on the radio or a teacher gives a lesson on television rather than in the classroom. The importance of this particularity of communication is emphasized by T. V. Dragunova (Age and individual characteristics of younger adolescents, 1967) and Ya. L. Kolominsky (1976).

Communication is also characterized by the fact that here each participant acts as a person, and not as a physical object, a “body.” A doctor's examination of an unconscious patient is not communication. When communicating, people are determined that their partner will answer them and count on his feedback. A. A. Bodalev (1965), E. O. Smirnova (Thinking and Communication, 1973) and other psychologists pay attention to this feature of communication. On this basis, B.F. Lomov argues that “communication is the interaction of people entering into it as subjects” (Problem of communication..., 1981. P. 8), and a little further: “For communication, at least two people are needed, each of which it appears precisely as a subject” (ibid.).

We would like to emphasize that the above-listed features of communication are inextricably linked with each other. The absolutization of interaction in isolation from other features of communication leads to an interactionist position, which sharply impoverishes the idea of ​​communication. With an excessive emphasis on the exchange of information as the essence of communication, the latter turns into communication - a phenomenon that is also much narrower than communication. Let us recall that K. Marx, speaking about the phenomena of communication, did not use the English word communication– “communication”, and German Verkehr- a term that to a much greater extent captures the connection of communication with relationships in human society (Marx K., Engels F. Soch. T. 3. P. 19).

Finally, equating communication with relationships, especially relationships, also distorts the term in question; its clear separation from the concept of “relationship” has important fundamental and methodological significance (Ya. L. Kolominsky, 1981). We will return to the last question when considering communication products.

So, in the course of communication, people address each other in the hope of receiving a response, an answer. This makes it easy to separate acts of communication from all other activities. If a child, listening to you, looks into your face and, smiling in response to your kind words, looks into your eyes, you can be sure that you are communicating. But then the child, attracted by the noise in the next room, turned away or tilted his head, interestedly examining the beetle in the grass - and the communication was interrupted: it was replaced by the child’s cognitive activity. Communication can be separated from other types of human activity into a separate episode. This happens, for example, when people concentrate on discussing their relationships, expressing opinions to each other about their own or someone else’s actions and actions. In young children, communication is usually closely intertwined with play, exploration of objects, drawing and other activities and interspersed with them. The child is either busy with his partner (adult, peer), or switches to other things. But even short moments of communication are a holistic activity that has a unique form of existence in children, therefore, as a subject of psychological analysis, communication represents a well-known abstraction. Communication is not completely reduced to the sum of the observed isolated contacts of the child with the people around him, although it is in them that it manifests itself and, on their basis, is constructed into an object of scientific study.

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Introduction

Historical development of languages ​​in different historical eras

1 Human communication and animal communication: main differences

2 Language functions

3 Individual influence on language

Social conditioning of language development

1 Social stratification of language

2 Conscious influence of society on language

Conclusion

List of used literature

Introduction

Language is defined as a means of human communication. This one of the possible definitions of language is the main thing, because it characterizes the language not from the point of view of its organization, structure, etc., but from the point of view of what it is intended for.

There are other means of communication. An engineer can communicate with a colleague without knowing his native language, but they will understand each other if they use drawings. Drawing is usually defined as the international language of technology. The musician conveys his feelings through melody, and the listeners understand him. The artist thinks in images and expresses this through lines and color. And all these are “languages”, so they often say “the language of a poster”, “the language of music”. But this is a different meaning of the word “language”.

Today, no one doubts that language is a socially determined phenomenon. The development of linguistics has become irreversible, and traditional linguistics, while continuing to exist, is often supplanted by the latest concepts, the range of research in the field of “language - society” is expanding, requiring new independent methods. Language and society are closely related to each other. Just as there can be no language outside society, so society cannot exist without language. Their influence on each other is mutual.

The presence of language is a necessary condition for the existence of society throughout human history. Any social phenomenon in its existence is limited in chronological terms: it is not originally in human society and is not eternal. Thus, according to most experts, the family did not always exist; there was not always private property, state, money; The various forms of social consciousness - science, law, art, morality, religion - are also not original. Unlike non-primary and/or transitory phenomena of social life, language is primordial and will exist as long as society exists.

The presence of language is a necessary condition for material and spiritual existence in all spheres of social space. Any social phenomenon in its distribution is limited by its “place”, space. Of course, in society everything is interconnected, however, let’s say that science or production does not include (as a component, condition, prerequisite, means, etc.) art, and art does not include science or production. Language is another matter. He is global, omnipresent. The areas of language use cover all conceivable social space. Being the most important and basic means of communication, language is inseparable from all and any manifestations of human social existence.

1. Historical development of languages ​​in different historical eras

The development of languages ​​has always been closely connected with the fate of their speakers and, in particular, with the development of sustainable social forms of unification of people.

Since the individual groups of our distant ancestors were still weakly connected with each other, the assignment of certain content to a certain exponent in their language was not the same even within relatively small territories. Therefore, the emerging generic languages ​​were initially, although quite similar, but still different. However, as marriage and other contracts between clans expanded, and then economic ties between tribes, interaction between languages ​​began. In the subsequent development of languages, processes of two opposite types can be traced: processes of divergence, the disintegration of a single language into two or several different, although related languages, and processes of convergence, the rapprochement of different languages ​​and even the replacement of two or more languages ​​by one.

In the real history of languages, the processes of divergence and convergence are constantly combined and intertwined with each other.

In the era of the disintegration of the primitive communal system, with the emergence of private property relations and the emergence of classes, tribes are replaced by nationalities. Accordingly, the languages ​​of nationalities take shape. Instead of a tribal organization, a purely territorial one is formed. Therefore, the dialectal division of the language of a nationality is usually only partly related to the old differences in tribal languages ​​and dialects; to a greater extent it reflects the emerging territorial associations and their boundaries.

Sometimes the language of an emerging or already formed nationality additionally receives the functions of a lingua franca, becoming the language of interethnic communication for a number of related and unrelated neighboring tribes, even those not united into a nationality. Examples include the Chinook languages ​​of the Indian tribes of the Pacific coast of America, Hausa in West Africa, Swahili in East Africa south of the equator, and the Malay language on the islands of Southeast Asia.

With the emergence and spread of writing, the formation of written languages ​​begins. In conditions of mass illiteracy, such a language is the property of an extremely narrow layer; mastery of this language is achieved only as a result of special professional training. Moreover, written language is conservative, adhering to authoritative patterns that are often regarded as sacred. The spoken language of the people develops according to its own laws. Gradually, the gap between written and spoken language is becoming larger.

Not all nationalities develop their own written language. For one reason or another, the functions of the language of literature and business correspondence are performed for a certain time by another language - the language of conquerors, an authoritative foreign culture, a religion that has become internationally widespread, etc. Thus, in most countries of medieval Europe, the language of science, religion and, to a large extent, the language of business correspondence and literature was “medieval Latin” - a language that in its own way continued the traditions of classical

The spoken language is characterized by significant dialect fragmentation. Therefore, the approach of the literary language to the folk one is fraught with the loss of the unity of the literary language. A contradiction arises between the need for language unity and the desire to bring the literary language closer to the folk language. In many cases, it is resolved in such a way that the basis of a single norm is one of the dialects - the one that, in the course of historical development, comes to the fore.

For some peoples, the formation of national languages ​​took place in the absence of a unifying center, in an environment of competition or successive changes of several centers and the long-term preservation of feudal fragmentation. This was the case in Europe with the Germans and Italians.

Finally, many nationalities develop into nations without having their own state at all, under conditions of more or less strong national oppression. This, of course, leaves an imprint on the development of the corresponding languages ​​and complicates the formation of their literary norms. Thus, in Norway, which was under Danish rule for a long time, two competing literary languages ​​arose - spontaneously Norwegianized Danish and a second, artificially composed, in the 19th century. based on Norwegian dialects.

A characteristic feature of modern times, along with the development of nations and national languages, is also the steady growth of international relations, comprehensive and increasingly widespread contacts between peoples, including linguistic contacts. Bilingualism and multilingualism of large groups of the population are becoming widespread in the modern world. The role of languages ​​of interethnic communication and international organizations - English, French, Spanish, Russian, Chinese, Arabic (these six languages ​​are the official languages ​​of the UN) is great and is increasingly increasing. In all languages ​​of the world there is a continuous growth of common elements - internationalisms.

2. Language as a means of human communication

.1 Human communication and animal communication: main differences

From the point of view of semiotics (a specific system of means of communicating certain meanings), language is a natural and at the same time innate sign system, comparable to other communication systems existing in nature and culture. Natural (biological) semiotic systems include the innate “languages” of animals. Artificial semiotics are created by humans for the economical and accurate transmission of special information (for example, Arabic numerals, geographical maps, drawings, traffic signs, programming languages, etc.). “Not invented” and at the same time non-biological semiotics are associated with the cultural history of mankind. Among them there are semiotics simpler than language (for example, etiquette, rituals) and semiotics more complex than language - such as the semiotics of the art of speech, the “language” of cinema, the “language” of theater.

For understanding human nature, the differences between the language and communication of people and the languages ​​and communicative activities of animals are especially significant. The main differences are:

.Linguistic communication between people is biologically insignificant. It is characteristic that evolution has not created a special organ of speech, and this function uses organs whose original meaning was different. Naturally, verbal communication requires a certain physiological support, but this material (articulatory-acoustic) side of the communication process is not physiologically necessary, unlike many phenomena in the communication activity of animals. For example, in the communication of a bee swarm, one of the means of communication that regulates the behavior of bees is the release of a special uterine substance by the queen bee and its distribution among other individuals. Being communicatively significant (i.e., being a message), the release of the uterine substance also has biological significance; it is a necessary link in the biological cycle of a bee swarm. The biological insignificance of spoken speech allowed people to develop secondary means of encoding linguistic information - such as writing, Morse code, naval flag alphabet, Braille dotted alphabet, etc., which increases the capabilities and reliability of linguistic communication.

.Language communication of people, unlike animal communication, is closely related to cognitive processes. A separate sign-message of an animal arises as a reaction of an individual to an event that has happened, already perceived (“recognized”) by the senses, and at the same time as a stimulus for a similar reaction of other individuals (to whom the message is addressed). This message contains no information about what caused the signal. Consequently, communicative processes in animals are not involved in reflecting the environment and do not affect the accuracy of the reflection.

A different picture is observed in human cognitive activity. Already perception, i.e. one of the stages of sensory cognition in humans is mediated by language: “language is, as it were, a kind of prism through which a person “sees” reality... projecting onto it with the help of language the experience of social practice.” Memory, imagination, and attention function primarily on the basis of language. The role of language in the processes of thinking is extremely important.

.The linguistic communication of people, in contrast to the communicative behavior of animals, is characterized by an exceptional richness of content. In contrast to the qualitative and quantitative unlimitedness of the content of linguistic communication, only expressive information is available to animal communication (i.e. information about the internal - physical, physiological - state of the sender of the message) and information that directly affects the recipient of the message (call, motivation, threat, etc.) .d.). In any case, this is always momentary information: what is reported occurs at the moment of communication.

.A number of features in its structure are associated with the richness of human language (in comparison with animal communication systems). The main structural difference between human language and animal languages ​​is its level structure: parts of words (morphemes) are made from sounds, words are made from morphemes, and sentences are made from words. This makes people’s speech articulate, and the language – meaningfully capacious and at the same time compact semiotics.

Unlike human language, in biological semiotics there are no signs of different levels, i.e. simple and complex, made up of simple ones. In linguistic terms, we can say that in animal communication, a single message is both a “word” and a “sentence”, i.e. the sentence is not divided into meaningful components; it is inarticulate.

2.2 Language functions

The function of language as a scientific concept is a practical manifestation of the essence of language, the realization of its purpose in the system of social phenomena, a specific action of language determined by its very nature, something without which language cannot exist, just as matter does not exist without movement.

Communication and cognitive functions are basic. They are almost always present in speech activity, which is why they are sometimes called functions of language in contrast to other, not so obligatory, functions of speech.

The Austrian psychologist, philosopher and linguist Karl Bühler, describing in his book “Theory of Language” the various orientations of language signs, defines 3 main functions of language:

) The function of expression, or the expressive function, when the state of the speaker is expressed.

) The function of appeal, appeal to the listener, or appellative function. 3) The function of representation, or representative, when one says or tells something to another.

Functions of language according to Reformed. There are other points of view on the functions performed by the language, for example, as A.A. Reformatsky understood them. 1) Nominative, that is, words of language can name things and phenomena of reality. 2) Communicative; proposals serve this purpose. 3) Expressive, thanks to it the emotional state of the speaker is expressed. Within the framework of the expressive function, we can also distinguish the deictic (indicative) function, which combines some elements of language with gestures.

Communication functionlanguage is due to the fact that language is primarily a means of communication between people. It allows one individual - the speaker - to express his thoughts, and another - the perceiver - to understand them, that is, to somehow react, take note, change his behavior or his mental attitudes accordingly. The act of communication would not be possible without language.

Communication means communication, exchange of information. In other words, language arose and exists primarily so that people can communicate.

The communicative function of language is carried out due to the fact that language itself is a system of signs: it is simply impossible to communicate in any other way. And signs, in turn, are intended to convey information from person to person.

Linguistic scientists, following the prominent researcher of the Russian language, Academician Viktor Vladimirovich Vinogradov (1895-1969), sometimes define the main functions of the language somewhat differently. They distinguish: - message, that is, the presentation of some thought or information; - influence, that is, an attempt, with the help of verbal persuasion, to change the behavior of the perceiving person;

communication, that is, the exchange of messages.

Message and impact refer to monologue speech, and communication refers to dialogic speech. Strictly speaking, these are indeed functions of speech. If we talk about the functions of language, then message, influence, and communication are the implementation of the communicative function of language. The communicative function of language is more comprehensive in relation to these functions of speech.

Linguistic scientists also sometimes highlight, and not unreasonably, the emotional function of language. In other words, signs and sounds of language often serve people to convey emotions, feelings, and states. As a matter of fact, it is with this function that human language most likely began. Moreover, in many social or herd animals, the transmission of emotions or states (anxiety, fear, peace) is the main way of signaling. With emotionally colored sounds and exclamations, animals notify their fellow tribesmen about found food or approaching danger. In this case, it is not information about food or danger that is transmitted, but rather the emotional state of the animal, corresponding to satisfaction or fear. And even we understand this emotional language of animals - we can fully understand the alarmed bark of a dog or the purr of a contented cat.

Of course, the emotional function of human language is much more complex; emotions are conveyed not so much by sounds as by the meaning of words and sentences. Nevertheless, this ancient function of language probably dates back to the pre-symbolic state of human language, when sounds did not symbolize or replace emotions, but were their direct manifestation.

However, any manifestation of feelings, direct or symbolic, also serves to convey a message to fellow tribesmen. In this sense, the emotional function of language is also one of the ways to realize the more comprehensive communicative function of language. So, different types of implementation of the communicative function of language are message, influence, communication, as well as expression of feelings, emotions, states.

Cognitive, or cognitive,The function of language (from the Latin cognition - knowledge, cognition) is associated with the fact that human consciousness is realized or recorded in the signs of language. Language is an instrument of consciousness that reflects the results of human mental activity.

Scientists have not yet come to a clear conclusion about what is primary - language or thinking. Perhaps the formulation of the question itself is incorrect. After all, words not only express our thoughts, but the thoughts themselves exist in the form of words, verbal formulations, even before their oral utterance. At least, no one has yet succeeded in recording the pre-verbal, pre-linguistic form of consciousness. Any images and concepts of our consciousness are realized by ourselves and those around us only when they are clothed in linguistic form. Hence the idea of ​​an inextricable connection between thinking and language.

The connection between language and thinking has even been established through physiometric evidence. The person being tested was asked to think about some complex problem, and while he was thinking, special sensors took data from the speech apparatus of a silent person (from the larynx, tongue) and detected the neural activity of the speech apparatus. That is, the mental work of the subjects “out of habit” was supported by the activity of the speech apparatus.

Interesting evidence is provided by observations of the mental activity of polyglots - people who can speak many languages ​​well. They admit that in each specific case they “think” in one language or another. The example of intelligence officer Stirlitz from the famous movie is indicative - after many years of work in Germany, he caught himself “thinking in German.”

The cognitive function of language not only allows you to record the results of mental activity and use them, for example, in communication. It also helps to understand the world. Human thinking develops in the categories of language: realizing new concepts, things and phenomena, a person names them. And thus he puts his world in order. This function of language is called nominative (naming objects, concepts, phenomena).

NominativeThe function of language directly follows from the cognitive one. What is known must be named, given a name. The nominative function is associated with the ability of language signs to symbolically designate things. The ability of words to symbolically replace objects helps us create our own second world - separate from the first, physical world. The physical world is difficult to manipulate. You can't move mountains with your hands. But the second, symbolic world is completely ours. We take it with us wherever we want and do whatever we want with it.

There is a crucial difference between the world of physical realities and our symbolic world, which reflects the physical world in the words of language. The world, symbolically reflected in words, is a known, mastered world. The world is known and mastered only when it is named.A world without our names is alien, like a distant unknown planet, there is no person in it, human life is impossible in it.

The name allows you to record what is already known. Without a name, any known fact of reality, any thing would remain in our minds as a one-time accident. By naming words, we create our own understandable and convenient picture of the world. Language gives us canvas and paint. It is worth noting, however, that not everything even in the known world has a name. For example, our body - we “encounter” it every day. Every part of our body has a name. What is the name of the part of the face between the lip and nose if there is no mustache there? No way. There is no such name. What is the top part of the pear called? What is the name of the pin on a belt buckle that fixes the length of the belt? Many objects or phenomena seem to be mastered by us, used by us, but do not have names. Why is the nominative function of language not realized in these cases?

This is the wrong question. The nominative function of the language is still implemented, just in a more sophisticated way - through description, rather than naming. We can describe anything with words, even if there are no separate words for it. Well, those things or phenomena that do not have their own names simply “did not deserve” such names. This means that such things or phenomena are not so significant in the everyday life of the people that they are given their own name (like the same collet pencil). In order for an object to receive a name, it must enter into public use and step over a certain “threshold of significance.” Until some time it was still possible to get by with a random or descriptive name, but from now on it is no longer possible - a separate name is needed. The act of naming is of great importance in a person's life. When we encounter something, we first of all name it. Otherwise, we can neither comprehend what we encounter ourselves, nor convey a message about it to other people. It was with inventing names that the biblical Adam began. Robinson Crusoe first of all called the rescued savage Friday. Travelers, botanists, zoologists of the times of great discoveries were looking for something new and giving this new name and description. An innovation manager does roughly the same thing by line of work. On the other hand, the name also determines the fate of the named thing.

Rechargeablethe function of language is associated with the most important purpose of language - to collect and preserve information, evidence of human cultural activity. Language lives much longer than humans, and sometimes even longer than entire nations. There are so-called dead languages ​​that survived the peoples who spoke these languages. No one speaks these languages ​​except the specialists who study them. The most famous “dead” language is Latin. Due to the fact that it has long been the language of science (and previously the language of great culture), Latin is well preserved and quite widespread - even a person with a secondary education knows several Latin sayings. Living or dead languages ​​preserve the memory of many generations of people, the evidence of centuries. Even when oral tradition is forgotten, archaeologists can discover ancient writings and use them to reconstruct the events of bygone days. Over the centuries and millennia of mankind, a huge amount of information has accumulated, produced and recorded by man in different languages ​​of the world.

All the gigantic volumes of information produced by humanity exist in linguistic form. In other words, any piece of this information can in principle be pronounced and perceived by both contemporaries and descendants. This is the accumulative function of language, with the help of which humanity accumulates and transmits information both in modern times and in a historical perspective - along the relay of generations.

Various researchers identify many more important functions of language. For example, language plays an interesting role in establishing or maintaining contacts between people. Returning from work with a neighbor in the elevator, you can say to him: “Something is unseasonably windy today, eh, Arkady Petrovich?” In fact, both you and Arkady Petrovich have just been outside and are well aware of the weather conditions. Therefore, your question has absolutely no information content, it is empty of information. It performs a completely different function - phatic, that is, contact-establishing. With this rhetorical question, you actually once again confirm to Arkady Petrovich the good neighborly status of your relations and your intention to maintain this status. If you write down all your remarks for the day, then you will be convinced that a considerable part of them is spoken precisely for this purpose - not to convey information, but to certify the nature of your relationship with the interlocutor. And what words are spoken at the same time is a second matter. This is the most important function of language - to certify the mutual status of interlocutors, to maintain certain relationships between them. For a person, a social being, the phatic function of language is very important - it not only stabilizes people’s attitude towards the speaker, but also allows the speaker himself to feel like “one of his own” in society. It is very interesting and revealing to analyze the implementation of the basic functions of language using the example of such a specific type of human activity as innovation.

Of course, innovative activity is impossible without the implementation of the communicative function of language. Setting research tasks, working in a team, checking research results, setting implementation tasks and monitoring their implementation, simple communication in order to coordinate the actions of participants in the creative and work process - all these actions are unthinkable without the communicative function of language. And it is in these actions that it is realized.

The cognitive function of language is of particular importance for innovation. Mental work, highlighting key concepts, abstracting technological principles, analyzing oppositions and contiguity phenomena, recording and analyzing experiments, translating engineering problems into a technological and implementation plane - all these intellectual actions are impossible without the participation of language, without the implementation of its cognitive function.

And language solves special problems when it comes to fundamentally new technologies that have no precedent, that is, without, accordingly, operational, conceptual names. In this case, the innovator acts as the Demiurge, the mythical creator of the Universe, who establishes connections between objects and comes up with completely new names for both objects and connections. This work implements the nominative function of language. And the future life of his innovations depends on how competent and skillful the innovator is. Will his followers and implementers understand it or not? If new names and descriptions of new technologies do not take root, then there is a high probability that the technologies themselves will not take root. No less important is the accumulative function of language, which ensures the work of the innovator twice: firstly, it provides him with knowledge and information accumulated by his predecessors, and secondly, it accumulates his own results in the form of knowledge, experience and information. Actually, in a global sense, the accumulative function of language ensures the scientific, technical and cultural progress of mankind, since it is thanks to it that every new knowledge, every bit of information is firmly established on a broad foundation of knowledge obtained by its predecessors. And this grandiose process does not stop for a minute.

language communication cognitive dialogical

2.3 Individual influence on language

If language is not a natural phenomenon, then, consequently, its place is among social phenomena. This place is special due to the special role of language for society.

What language has in common with other social phenomena is that language is a necessary condition for the existence and development of human society and that, being an element of spiritual culture, language, like all other social phenomena, is unthinkable in isolation from materiality.

The idea that language is not a biological organism, but a social phenomenon, was expressed earlier by representatives of “sociological schools” both under the flag of idealism (F. de Saussure, J. Vandries, A. Meilleux) and under the flag of materialism (L. Noiret, N.Y. Marr).

Since language is a social, public phenomenon, this means that language “grows” in a person as a product of imitation and development and that it exists on the scale of an entire community: there cannot be a language “for one person.” We can also say this: language is a supra-individual phenomenon that serves all members of a given society, regardless of their gender, age, or financial status.

What is the role of the individual, the individual, in this process? Does he simply accept the ready-made rules of the game, signing, along with other members of society, a “language convention” and then regularly observing it? No, not quite like that: the individual has a certain freedom in relation to language.

The point is, first of all, that language is a very complex, voluminous, multi-element system. It contains a huge number of words, a lot of rules, and a variety of options. Large explanatory dictionaries of modern languages ​​record hundreds of thousands of units. An individual simply cannot acquire such wealth. Therefore, he treats linguistic units selectively: he chooses some words for himself, forms his own vocabulary. Thus, the linguistic freedom of the individual is manifested primarily in individual variants of the language - idiolects. But idiolect is not only vocabulary. These are also individual differences in pronunciation and differences in writing.

Along with idiolects, linguistics also studies “sociolects” - “group languages”. This is an intermediate stage of abstraction between the language of the individual and the language of the whole society. This includes professional languages ​​(for example, sailors, doctors, railway workers, etc.) and jargons (conventional languages, deliberately opposed to literary speech). An interesting special case of sociolects are familialects: these are varieties of language adopted in specific families.

Of course, the uniqueness of sociolects and idiolects manifests itself mainly in the sphere of vocabulary and vocabulary. However, if you carefully study the speech around us, you can be convinced: people also treat grammatical rules differently. He unconditionally recognizes some of them, while others allow himself to violate or even pretend that they do not exist. The speaking person “ranks” the rules, divides them into immutable (mandatory) and unimportant (optional).

In the end, however, individual freedom in relation to language is manifested not only in the ability to choose linguistic units and form one’s own idiolect. It also lies in the possibility of evaluating linguistic units: I like this, and I don’t like that. From here follows a natural desire to correct, to eliminate what is not liked, and, conversely, to consolidate what seems successful - in general, to somehow influence the language.

There are specific cases of the influence of personality on language, in particular, on well-known neologisms introduced into a particular language by a specific person: a writer or public figure.

Of course, there are special eras - the formation of a nation, the formation of a literary language, the awakening of public consciousness, when the role of the individual can be significant. But, basically, these are unique situations, exceptional cases. In general, language is quite resistant to individual intervention, to attempts to consciously “improve” and regulate it. The reason lies in the supra-individual nature of the means of communication.

3. Social conditioning of language development

.1 Social stratification of language

Even ancient scientists were convinced that there is a connection between human society and language. “Of all living creatures, only man is gifted with speech,” wrote Aristotle. Both Aristotle and his followers clearly understood that language is inherent not just in the individual, but in a social person: after all, the main purpose of language is to serve as a means of communication between people.

The development and functioning of language is also largely determined by the development and life of society. This comes in a variety of forms. Here are some of them.

Every human society is heterogeneous in its composition. It is divided into layers, or classes, and divided into smaller groups, within which people are united by some characteristic, for example, by age, profession, level of education, etc.

This differentiation of society is reflected in language in the form of certain socially determined subsystems.

Peasant dialects are one of such subsystems. True, they are more often called local or territorial, but it is obvious that their separation from the national language is also based on a social criterion: the territorial dialects spoken by the peasantry are contrasted with the language of the city, the language of the workers, and the literary language.

Social differentiation of language may also reflect other types of stratification of society. For example, language features determined by the specifics of professions are sometimes called professional “languages” (see Argo. Jargon). The first thing that catches your eye when you get acquainted with such “languages” is their special terminology.

Outwardly identical words have different meanings in different professions.

Each profession has its own special terminology; in addition, commonly used words and phrases can be used in a unique way: doctors, for example, use the word candle to designate a sharp change in the curve on the patient’s temperature graph; Railway workers use the expression to break the schedule, get out of schedule, etc.

Certain differences in language may be related to the gender of the speakers. Thus, in the language of the Yana Indians living in northern California (USA), the same objects and phenomena are called differently, depending on who is talking about them - a man or a woman. In Japan, girls speak a rich and varied vocabulary (they are specially trained for this), while boys are characterized by a lexically poorer language.

The connection between the history of language and the history of society is an axiom of modern linguistics. Since language exists only in society, it cannot help but depend on society. At the same time, it is incorrect to understand such dependence as a strict conditioning of changes in language by social factors. In fact, the process of development of society stimulates the development of language: it accelerates or slows down the rate of linguistic changes (the mechanism of which is determined by the internal laws inherent in the language), promotes the restructuring of certain parts of the language system, their enrichment with new elements, etc.

The following are usually considered as the actual social factors influencing the development of a language: a change in the circle of native speakers, the spread of education, the development of science, the movement of the masses, the creation of a new statehood, changes in the forms of legislation and office work, etc. The impact of these factors on the language varies depending on form and strength.

For example, after the October Revolution, the composition of speakers of the Russian literary language expanded significantly: if previously it was spoken mainly by the bourgeois-noble intelligentsia, now masses of workers and peasants are beginning to embrace the literary language. A process of language democratization is taking place. Workers and peasants bring their own speech characteristics and skills into the literary language system; new elements begin to coexist and compete with traditional units of the literary language. This leads to the borrowing of some dialectisms and argotisms by the literary dictionary (shortage, malfunctions, study, bow, etc.), to a restructuring of the relationships between the units of this dictionary (in particular, new synonymic series arise: shortcomings - shortcomings - malfunctions - defects; lack - lack - deficit; learning - study; connection - contact - union - connection).

The influence of other social factors on the development of language is equally indirect and complex.

3.2 Conscious influence of society on language

In addition to the objective influence of society on language, independent of the will of individual people, there is also a conscious, and, moreover, purposeful influence of the state (and society as a whole) on the development and functioning of the language. This impact is called language policy.

Language policy can concern a variety of aspects of the linguistic life of a given society. For example, in multilingual countries, the choice of a language or dialect that should become the state language is not carried out spontaneously, but consciously, with the direct participation and guiding efforts of the authorities and other social institutions. The activity of specialists in developing alphabets and writing systems for previously unliterate peoples is just as conscious and purposeful. Improving existing alphabets and scripts, for example, repeatedly carried out reforms of Russian spelling, is another type of human intervention in the life of the language.

However, the opposite “order” is possible: recommending the first method and prohibiting the second (with voiced consonants at the end of words). Such recommendations and prohibitions are the result of the normalizing activities of linguistic scientists: they develop rules that consolidate the forms and methods of using language units approved by society. There are other ways that society influences language: the development of special terminologies for various fields of knowledge, the standardization of innovations in vocabulary, the promotion of linguistic knowledge in the press and on the radio, etc.

Conclusion

Language arises, develops and exists as a social phenomenon. Its main purpose is to serve the needs of human society and, above all, to ensure communication between members of a large or small social group, as well as the functioning of the collective memory of this group. Language and society are closely related to each other. Just as there can be no language outside society, so society cannot exist without language. Their influence on each other is mutual.

Language plays a very significant role in public life and is the basis of mutual understanding, social peace and development. It has an organizing function in relation to society.

Language is dependent and independent of society. The globality of language, its inclusion in all forms of social existence and social consciousness give rise to its supra-group and supra-class character. However, the supra-class nature of a language does not mean that it is non-social. Society may be divided into classes, but it remains a society, i.e. known unity, community of people. While the development of production leads to social differentiation of society, language acts as its most important integrator.

Language is a phenomenon of the spiritual culture of humanity, one of the forms of social consciousness (along with everyday consciousness, morality and law, religious consciousness and art, ideology, politics, science). The uniqueness of language as a form of social consciousness lies in the fact that, firstly, language, along with the psychophysiological ability to reflect the world, is a prerequisite for social consciousness; secondly, language is a semantic foundation and a universal shell of various forms of social consciousness. Through language, a specific human form of transmission of social experience (cultural norms and traditions, natural science and technological knowledge) is carried out.

The development of language, more than the development of law, ideology or art, is independent of the social history of society, although ultimately it is conditioned and directed precisely by social history. However, the connection between the history of language and the history of society is obvious. The linguistic consequences of such social upheavals as revolutions and civil wars are also quite obvious: the boundaries of dialect phenomena are shifting, the previous normative and stylistic structure of the language is being violated, political vocabulary and phraseology are being updated. However, at its core, the language remains the same, unified, which ensures the ethnic and cultural continuity of society throughout its history.

List of used literature

1.Maslov Yu.S. Introduction to linguistics. M.: Higher. school, 1987. - 272 p.

.Leontyev A.A. Language, speech, speech activity. M.: Krasandr., 1969. - 214 p.

.Reformatsky A.A. Introduction to linguistics. M.: 1967. - P.536

.Mechkovskaya N.B. Social linguistics. M. Aspect press:, 1996. - 207 p.

.Norman B.Y. Theory of language. Introductory course. M.:Flinta, 2004. - P.296

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