Development of a practical lesson on the topic: “Religion”. Development of a practical lesson on the topic: “Religion” Relatively small closed religious communities

Remember:

what is religion? When did the first religions appear? What are the characteristics of world religions?

In the sphere of spiritual culture, religion has a special place. The religious worldview is characterized by the division of all things into the earthly and heavenly worlds, as well as the recognition of the immortality of the soul. Religion presupposes the presence of a mysterious (mystical) connection between man and God (or other supernatural forces), the worship of these forces, and the possibility of human interaction with them.

Why do people believe in the supernatural? Researchers of the past explained this, for example, by fear of the unpredictability and power of nature or the deep ignorance of most people, the mythological nature of mass consciousness. Do these characteristics apply to modern society? Philosophers, cultural scientists, sociologists, and psychologists answer this question differently. But it is obvious that religion retains its position even at the post-industrial stage of development of society, since it performs socially significant functions, which we will consider below.

RELIGION AS ONE OF THE FORMS OF CULTURE

Religion is one of the universal cultural mechanisms for regulating human activity: through a system of religious actions, it organizes everyday life, in the process of mastering religious doctrine, it forms a worldview, and encourages a person to think about the meaning of his own existence.

The structure of religion usually includes the following elements: religious consciousness, religious cult And religion chilly organizations.

Several levels of religious consciousness can be identified: massive religious consciousness, in which the emotional component usually predominates, and rational formalized consciousness, presupposing an understanding of the content of the doctrine. An even higher level of religious consciousness - theology (theology), within the framework of which the doctrine is not only mastered, but also transmitted, interpreted in relation to the requirements of the time, and protected from heresies.

Modern religious scholars identify a number of essential characteristics of religious consciousness.

The first one is conviction V existence object comrade 9 possessing supernatural properties. From the history course, you remember that similar properties were endowed, for example, with the forces of nature (sun, wind, rain, thunder, etc.), individual fetish objects, and the souls of ancestors. In developed religious systems, especially in world religions, the main object of religious worship is God, who revealed his existence to man. The important thing is that the world of the sacred is real for the believer; it does not belong to the realm of fantasy.

Next characteristic - conviction V real you contact With objects religious worship. This contact, as a rule, seems to be two-way to the believer. The deity, to one degree or another, influences the destinies of individuals and entire nations, but the believer also has certain channels of communication with the world of the supernatural - cult actions (prayer, sacrifice, etc.).

Another one important trait religious consciousness - refuge daylight V dependencies human fate from will God stva, presenting certain requirements To behave nuyu person And capable attract To responsibility behind what was done. A person’s experience of his dependence can take diametrically opposite forms: from animal fear, forcing submission, to enlightened humility as a result of a person’s awareness of his own imperfection and limitations of his capabilities. Religion also presupposes the establishment of good relations between a person and objects of worship, making it possible to appease the deity, and in case of violation of the divine will, to compensate for disobedience by repentance or sacrifice.

Main organizational forms religions are church And sects. The church is, as a rule, a hierarchical religious organization of clergy and believers, based on a community of religious dogmas and a cult system. Sects are relatively small in number, closed religious communities that disagree with the dominant church.

THE ROLE OF RELIGION IN THE LIFE OF SOCIETY

The place and significance of religion in society are determined by the functions it performs, which include regulatory, educational, ideological, compensatory, communicative, integration, and cultural.

Of course, the most important function of religion is re humming behavior individuals, social groups. Regu-

lative the function of religion is based on the moral experience of many generations of people accumulated by it, expressed in a condensed form, for example, in the commandments and moral canons of various religions. Religion not only establishes a certain framework for human freedom, but also encourages him to assimilate certain positive moral values and worthy behavior, and this reveals the connection between regulatory and educational functions.

Worldview function religion realizes due to the presence in it of a system of views that reflect the picture of the world, the essence of man and his place in the world.

Compensatory function manifests itself in the fact that religion relieves a person’s social and mental stress, and compensates for the shortcomings or deficits of secular communication with religious communication. This function is realized especially clearly in prayer and repentance, during which a person moves from depression and mental discomfort to a state of relief, calm, and a surge of strength. At the same time, some scientists consider religious compensation to be an imaginary removal of contradictions, since the true causes of a person’s mental and social discomfort are not eliminated.

Religion also does communicative function, being a means of communication between believers. This communication unfolds on two levels: in the plane of dialogue with God and the “celestials,” as well as in contact with other believers. Communication is carried out primarily through cultic actions.

From the course of domestic and foreign history, you know many examples of how religion can act factor integration society, - it is enough to recall the role of the hierarchs of the Russian Orthodox Church, for example St. Sergius of Radonezh, in the unification of Russian lands and the fight against invaders. By directing and uniting the efforts of individuals and social groups, religion contributes to social stability or the establishment of something new - let us remember, for example, the role of Protestantism in the formation of bourgeois society. However, religious integration has a dual character: on the one hand, religion brings people together, on the other, it separates people, as exemplified by numerous religious wars and conflicts.

Cultural function is that religion preserves and transmits the social experience of humanity, being an integral part of the culture of human society.

WORLD RELIGIONS

World religions cover a huge number of believers. According to sociologists, about half of the world's population are adherents of one of the three world religions: Christianity, Islam, and Buddhism. It should be noted that representatives of all world religions live in the Russian Federation.

Buddhism - the oldest world religion, most widespread in China, Thailand, Burma, Japan, Korea and other countries of Southeast Asia. Russian centers of Buddhism are located in Buryatia, Kalmykia and the Republic of Tuva.

Buddhism is based on the teaching of the four noble truths: everything in human life is suffering - birth, life, old age, death, any attachment, etc.; the cause of suffering lies in the presence of desires in a person, including the desire to live; the cessation of suffering is associated with liberation from desires; To achieve this goal, it is necessary to adhere to the eightfold path of salvation, which includes mastering the four noble truths, accepting them as a life program, abstaining from words that are not related to the moral goal, not harming living things, turning true actions into a way of life, constant self-control, renunciation of the world, spiritual self-immersion. Following this path leads a person to nirvana - a state of absence, overcoming suffering.

The rigor of Buddhist morality and the complexity of the technique by which one can achieve nirvana led to the identification of two paths of salvation - Hinayana (“narrow vehicle”), accessible only to monks, and Mahayana (“broad vehicle”), following which ordinary lay people can act to save other people and yourself. It should also be noted that Buddhism is easily combined with national religions, such as Confucianism and Taoism in China or Shintoism in Japan.

Christianity is the second oldest world religion. From your history course you know that there are three main movements of Christianity: Catholicism, Orthodoxy And Protestantism.

The Bible is the main source of the Christian faith. It includes the Old Testament, common to the Jews (the religion of the Jewish people, in which Christ is recognized as only one of the messiahs) and Christians, and the New Testament, which consists of the four Gospels (from the ancient Greek euangelion - good news), as well as the Acts of the Apostles, Epistles apostles and the Revelation of John the Theologian (Apocalypse).

Christianity is a religion of redemption and salvation. Christians believe in the merciful love of the triune God for sinned humanity, for the sake of whose salvation the Son of God Jesus Christ was sent into the world, who became human and died on the cross. The idea of the God-man-Savior is central to Christianity. A believer must follow the teachings of Christ in order to participate in salvation.

Political development of the Roman Empire in the III-IV centuries. n. e., its division into Western and Eastern led to the gradual separation Western And Eastern hri stian churches with centers in Rome and Constantinople, whose differences accumulated over the centuries, leading to a rupture between them in 1054. What are the fundamental dogmatic differences of the churches? The Catholic Church maintains that the Holy Spirit comes from both God the Father and God the Son. The Eastern Church recognizes the procession of the Holy Spirit only from God the Father. The Roman Catholic Church proclaims the dogma of the immaculate conception of the Virgin Mary, her chosen by God to be the Mother of Jesus Christ and her ascension to heaven after death, hence the cult of the Madonna in Catholicism. The Orthodox Church does not accept the dogma of the infallibility of the Pope in matters of faith, and the Roman Catholic Church considers the Pope to be the vicar of God on earth, through whose mouth God Himself speaks in relation to matters of religion. The Roman Catholic Church, along with hell and heaven, recognizes the existence of purgatory and the possibility of atonement for sins already on earth by acquiring a portion of the superfluous stock of good deeds performed by Jesus Christ, the Mother of God and the saints, which the church “disposes of.”

In the countries of Western Europe in the XV-XVI centuries. The Reformation movement unfolded, leading to the separation of a significant part of Christians from the Catholic Church. A number of Christian Protestant churches emerged, emerging from the authority of the Pope. The largest of them are Lutheran in (Germany and Baltic countries), Calvinism (Switzerland and the Netherlands), Anglican church (England). Protestants recognize the Holy Scripture (Bible) as the only source of faith and believe that every person will be rewarded according to his faith, regardless of the means of its external expression. Protestantism shifted the center of religious life from the church to the individual. Catholicism remained a strictly centralized religion. Among European countries, Catholicism is most widespread in Italy, Spain, France, Poland, and Portugal. A significant number of Catholics live in Latin American countries. But in none of these countries is Catholicism the only religion.

Despite the division of Christianity into separate churches, they all have a common ideological basis. The world is gaining strength ecumenical movement, striving for dialogue and rapprochement of all Christian churches.

IN religious life of modern Russia All three directions of Christianity are active. The vast majority of believers in our country are Orthodox. Orthodoxy is represented by the Russian Orthodox Church, various directions Old Believers, as well as religious sects. Catholicism also has a certain number of followers. Protestantism among Russian citizens is represented by both official churches, for example Lutheranism, and sectarian organizations.

Islam - the latest world religion in terms of origin, widespread mainly in Arab states (Middle East and North Africa), in South and Southeast Asia (Iran, Iraq, Afghanistan, Pakistan, Indonesia, etc.). There is a significant number of Muslims living in the Russian Federation. This is the second religion in terms of the number of adherents after Orthodoxy.

Islam originated on the Arabian Peninsula in the 7th century. n. e., when the religious center of the Arab tribes was formed in Mecca and a movement arose for the veneration of the one supreme God, Allah. The activities of the founder of Islam, the Prophet Muhammad (Mohammed), began here.

Muslims believe that the one and omnipotent God - Allah - conveyed to people through the mouth of the Prophet Muhammad, through the mediation of the angel Jebrail, the holy book - the Koran, which is the indisputable authority in spiritual life, law, politics and economic activity. There are five most important injunctions of the Koran that every Muslim must follow: knowledge of the creed; five times prayer (namaz); observing fasting during the entire month of Ramadan; giving alms; making a pilgrimage to Mecca (Hajj). Since the Koran contains instructions relating to all aspects of the life of Muslims, the criminal and civil law of Islamic states was, and in a number of countries is still based on religious law - Sharia.

The formation of Islam took place under the noticeable influence of more ancient religions of Middle Eastern origin - Judaism and Christianity. Therefore, a number of biblical personalities are found in the Koran (archangels Gabriel, Michael, etc., prophets Abraham, David, Moses, John the Baptist, Jesus), the book sacred to the Jews - the Torah, as well as the Gospel - is mentioned.

The expansion of Islam was facilitated by the conquests of the Arabs and Turks, who marched under the banner of religion. In the 20th century in Tur-

tion, Egypt and a number of other states, reforms were carried out to limit the scope of religious laws, separate church and state, and introduce secular education. But in some Muslim countries (for example, Iran, Afghanistan) Islamic fundamentalism is extremely strong, which requires the organization of all spheres of life on the principles of the Koran and Sharia.

In modern Russia, Islam is widespread among the residents of Tatarstan and Bashkortostan, the republics of the North Caucasus, with the exception of the population of North Ossetia-Alania, whose residents predominantly profess Orthodoxy. Among the Muslims are representatives of the large Azerbaijani diaspora. Organizationally, Muslims in Russia are headed by the Central Spiritual Administration of Muslims of Russia and European CIS countries and the Council of Muftis of Russia.

PRINCIPLE OF FREEDOM OF CONSCIENCE

IN Currently, civil society is being formed in Russia, so the problem of interaction and dialogue between representatives of various religious faiths is extremely relevant (interfaith dialogue) with each other and with states.

The legal basis for resolving all emerging contradictions and problems can be compliance with principle freedom conscience. You know that conscience is the most important ethical category, reflecting a person’s ability to exercise moral self-control, formulate and impose moral demands on his behavior, and achieve their fulfillment. In our time, freedom of conscience is understood as the right of a person to independently form his own worldview and openly express it in social interactions, without causing damage to the freedom of other people and society as a whole. In essence, freedom of conscience is now understood as the human right to autonomy of spiritual Life. But this principle was not always interpreted so broadly - in societies with a predominant religious worldview, freedom of conscience could only be expressed in freedom of religion, the struggle for which went on for many centuries.

Legislation of the Russian Federation in in accordance with international legal acts guarantee the implementation of the principle of freedom of conscience. Let's consider some of its aspects.

Principle departments religious organizations from state donations provides, on the one hand, non-interference of the state in the person of its bodies and individual officials

persons into the internal life of religious organizations, the lack of state funding and propaganda of individual organizations, on the other hand, the non-interference of religious organizations in issues of public administration.

All religions in the country are equal in rights, there is no state religion, the official religion is the state neutral V issues religious her ry.

Secular character state education assumes, firstly, equal access for representatives of all religious denominations and atheists to receive state-guaranteed education, secondly, the prohibition of any forms of religious or atheistic propaganda in educational institutions, especially in compulsory classes, thirdly, the education of the younger generation in the spirit of tolerance towards manifestations of dissent.

The state also guarantees to all believers possible ness free send mine cult (if the activities of a religious organization are not recognized by the court as socially dangerous and are not prohibited), and believers liable for military service, if military service contradicts their religious beliefs, are given the opportunity to undergo alternative civilian service.

Si! Basic concepts: religion, religious consciousness, world religions, the principle of freedom of conscience.

ill Terms: religious cult, religious organizations, interfaith dialogue.

Test yourself

1) What is religion? 2) What elements of religion do scientists identify? 3) What are the characteristics of religious consciousness? 4) What is the importance of religion in the life of society? 5) What are the main ideas of each of the world's religions? 6) What is the essence of the principle of freedom of conscience? How is it implemented in the legislation of the Russian Federation?

Think, discuss, do

1. The famous sociologist P. A. Sorokin, based on an analysis of hundreds of thousands of paintings and sculptures created from the beginning of the Middle Ages to the 30s. XX century and exhibited in museums in Western Europe, concluded that there has been a steady significant reduction in the number of works based on the religious perception of the world. Based on your knowledge of the humanities, explain the reasons for this phenomenon. Confirm the correctness of the sociologist's conclusion with specific examples.

Since ancient times, scientists have traced this trend
the definition of social protest as fighting against God. Express
several assumptions about the reasons for the occurrence of similar
no movement.
Collect information about the activities of religious organizations
organizations in your region.

Work with the source

Read a fragment of an article by an American sociologist of the 20th century. Robert Bell, Sociology of Religion.

So, we inevitably come to the conclusion that religion is not just a means of coping with melancholy and despair. Rather, it represents a symbolic model that shapes human experience - both cognitive and emotional. Religion can not only moderate melancholy and despair, but also cause it.

Man is a problem-solving animal. What to do and what to think when other ways of solving problems fail - this is the sphere of religion. Religion deals not so much with specific problems as with the general problems of human nature, and among specific problems - those that are most directly adjacent to these general problems, such as, for example, the mystery of death. Religion deals not so much with the experience of specific limits, but with extreme in general... But even for the most primitive savage, the realm of religion is something different, although very close, something that can be heard, but cannot be seen, and if it can be seen, then only briefly. Transmitted religious symbols also tell us meanings when we don't ask, help us hear when we don't listen, help us see when we don't look. It is this ability of religious symbols to shape meaning and feeling at a relatively high level of generality, transcending specific contexts of experience, that gives them such power in human life, both personal and social.

Bell R. American sociology. Prospects. Problems. Methods. -

M.. 1972. - S. 266 - 278.

IV Questions and assignments to the source. 1) What, according to the author, are the possible origins of religious faith? 2) What words does the author use to characterize religion? 3) Give some examples to illustrate the symbolic nature of religion. 4) Using a fragment of R. Bell’s article, your knowledge and life experience, give several explanations of the power of religion in human life.

§ 34. The place of art in spiritual culture

Remember:

what is culture? What are the ways of its development? What are the causes, directions and consequences of the dialogue of cultures?

Despite the fact that art has existed for many millennia and is actively studied by researchers - philosophers, cultural experts, art critics, art historians, even the question of its origin is not clear. Thus, a number of scientists derive art, firstly, from the need of all living beings to attract the attention of the opposite sex with the help of some kind of decoration for the purpose of procreation, and secondly, from the need to use the energy of subconscious drives for other purposes. There is an opinion that the origins of art lie in the presence of energy in a person that is not wasted in work, as well as the need for some “training” to master standard social roles. Art is also sometimes associated with various types of magic woven into the daily activities of primitive man. In addition, it is considered by a number of scientists as a “child of labor” - the practically useful qualities of objects become the object of artistic display and aesthetic pleasure. Many modern researchers associate art with the mythological mastery of reality, which contains cognitive, magical, playful, object-based aspects.

WHAT IS ART

You know that within the framework of culture, a person forms a diverse picture of the world around him: science cognizes the world through the achievement of truth, morality reflects it in the categories of good and evil, and art represents objects in an artistic and figurative form. It allows you to see the world through the prism imagery, where reality is intricately combined with fiction, giving a person the opportunity to create these images and clothe them in rational form. Art does not set itself the goal of identifying the patterns of development of nature and society or solving material and practical problems. Like science, art seeks to identify significant properties of objects and phenomena, but, unlike science, it presents these characteristics in the form specific sensually- visual images.

The concept of “art” has many meanings. Firstly, art as skill, skill, dexterity, for example, in art lessons

Tory, you have repeatedly spoken about the art, that is, the craftsmanship of the artisans of Ancient Rus'. Secondly, art understood as specific view spiritually- practical mastered leniya reality And aesthetic relationship To her. It is in the second meaning that it is one of the components of the spiritual culture of society.

What are your poems about? - I don’t know, brother. |

Read them when the hunt comes. !

The poems are alive - they speak themselves, \

And they don’t talk about something, but something. I

S. Ya. Marshak ")

DISPUTES ABOUT THE ESSENCE OF ART

For many centuries, cultural theorists have been trying to develop an understanding of the essence of art.

From Antiquity to the present day, the understanding of art as an imitation and reflection of nature can be traced. Its supporters view art in connection with cognition, often presenting aesthetic activity as the lowest link in human cognitive activity. Thus, for the philosopher Plato, art is an imitation of the world of sensory objects, each of which is a copy of an idea, that is, the artist, in fact, creates a copy of a copy - “shadows of shadows.” Aristotle also based art on the ability to imitate, believing that imitation is a cognitive ability. Aristotle introduced the concept of catharsis - the cleansing of the human soul from base passions through contemplation. Art, according to ancient authors, certainly has an element of pleasure. Its main task is to educate the mind: “Just as a teacher instructs children in their minds, so adults are poets.”

The attitude towards art as an imitation of nature is also characteristic of the Renaissance. Reflecting nature and its greatest creation - man - is the main task of art. Achieving ideal external verisimilitude was ensured by precise knowledge of anatomy and mathematics. On the other hand, Renaissance humanism is an affirmation of the boundlessness of human creative potential.

In the era of classicism, what comes to the fore is not the naturalistic reproduction of nature and man, but the reflection of human types. The educational component of art is becoming especially relevant. In the Age of Enlightenment and later, supporters of the concept of reflection viewed art as a kind of “school of morality.” The artist has a more subtle than usual

a person, the perception of reality, therefore he is able to see and reliably display reality. An impartial reflection of life carries enormous educational potential; it can also act as a verdict on certain social realities.

Thus, even within the framework of the concept of reflection (imitation) of reality, the assessment of the social significance of art has changed significantly over time - from a secondary education, blindly copying individual objects of the surrounding world, to a kind of conscience of society.

According to supporters of the theory of self-expression, art is a limitless sphere of manifestation of the creative potential of an individual. It seems to be a kind of cipher of the emotional experiences of the artist, who splashes out his emotions, desires, complexes, admires them, justifies and compensates for them in the world of illusions he created. We can say that art from this point of view is a kind of confession of the artist, based on the unity of people’s spiritual experience. It is not surprising that the reader, viewer is “infected” by the author’s emotions. With this understanding of the essence of art, the non-aesthetic, often everyday experiences of a person, creator or viewer come to the fore, and artistic images are only a means of their expression.

The sign-symbolic concept of art considers it not as an open system of human interaction with the outside world, but as a closed or autonomous sphere of activity, and also as way of connecting a person with another, the other world. According to supporters of this point of view, a work of art is a kind of cipher that carries information “encoded” by the creator. For example, only in a sign-symbolic context can iconography be understood - a system of symbols with the help of which creators tried to reflect the object of their religious veneration. “Reading” an icon requires liberation from stereotypes of perception - in its space there is no direct perspective, the depth we are accustomed to, proportions have been changed, and the temporal relationships of events are disrupted.

FUNCTIONS OF ART

The variety of forms of aesthetic exploration of reality gives rise to a variety of functions of art, which include educational, informational, communicative, value-wise- orienting, brought up body, compensatory, aesthetic etc. Problem

The relationship between the functions of art and each other has not yet been fully resolved. If we talk about the creator’s modeling of a special artistic reality as the basis of art, then the aesthetic function becomes fundamental. There is also a point of view according to which art, insofar as it reflects reality, equally fulfills all these functions. Art is an integral element of cognitive activity, offering unexpected turns of events, combining incompatible things, stimulating the imagination.

Let us dwell in more detail on the content of some of the functions of art. Cognitive function art is closely connected with informational. The art is very informative. The creations reflect the cultural, historical, national, religious and other features of the era, people, as well as the peculiarities of the worldview of the creator himself. Communicative function art cannot be reduced only to the communication of people about a specific work or to the contact between the author and the viewer through an artistic image. A work of art is always ambiguous; it contains redundant information, the meaning of which requires step-by-step interpretation. Paradoxically, art to some extent complicates the everyday process of communication between people, forcing us to think about universal human values. But in this way it helps to feel the enduring value of human interaction, communication in the broadest sense.

Value-wise- orienting function manifests itself in two ways: on the one hand, works of art are cultural values, that is, they acquire special social and personal significance; on the other hand, the content of specific works orients people in the existing system of social norms and values and contributes to the choice of life guidelines. Close in content to the value-orienting function is the educational function. Art always involves influencing the worldview and activities of people. Human participation in the process of artistic creativity and contact with works of art also allows, to some extent, as a rule, illusory compensation for social and spiritual problems and negative experiences of a person.

Even ancient thinkers attached paramount importance to the aesthetic function of art. Art cleanses our soul, enlightens us, influences our emotions, expanding their subject matter. It stimulates the search for activities that correspond to these emotions and turns us to self-knowledge.

STRUCTURE OF ART

Kinds art can be distinguished By environment, material, in which artistic images are realized. This is sound in music, lines and color palette in graphics and painting, stone (metal) and form in sculpture and architecture, movement in dance. Each medium and material requires specific expressive and technological means, its own “language”. This is evidenced, for example, by the fact that the content of works of one type of art cannot be adequately conveyed by means of another type.

The famous German philosopher F. Schelling at the beginning of the 19th century. proposed a classification of the main types of art, which remains important today. He divided the arts into real And perfect. Real - music, painting, plastic arts (architecture and sculpture). The ideal ones are literature and poetry, and he placed these types, which use the word as the freest and richest means of expressing artistic ideas, ahead of the real arts, and generally recognized poetry as the highest form of artistic creativity, expressing the very essence of art.

There are other classifications of types of art, for example, there are spatial, or plastic, kinds, which include architecture, all types of fine arts, artistic photography. For these types of art, the spatial construction of objects is essential in revealing the artistic concept. The second group includes temporary or speakers logical kinds - literature and music, the basis of which is a composition unfolding in time. The third group consists spatially- dynamic to her yes, which are also called synthetic or spectacles nym, - theater, cinema, choreography, circus, etc.

It is obvious that the creation of a universal classification of types of art is impossible not only because of a significant number of reasons, but also because art is developing dynamically - new types are appearing. However, each historical era brings to the fore those types of art that are most capable of expressing the spirit of the time.

Art can also be classified according to sociological principles, distinguishing elite, folk and mass. We will look at them in the next paragraph.

Each art form has historically developed its own system genres. The concept of “genre” generalizes the specific properties of the artistic form and content of a significant group of works of art from any historical period.

which era, people or world as a whole. Grounds For The genres are quite numerous, so we will recall only a few of them. So, from a literature course you know that according to the way they reflect reality, they are distinguished, for example, by epic, lyricism and drama. In the fine arts, the identification of genres can be based on the specific features of the subject of the image: portrait, still life, landscape, battle or historical painting. Sometimes genres are determined by the nature of the image: caricature or cartoon. In music, genres differ, firstly, in the method of performance - vocal and instrumental; secondly, in terms of content - lyrical, epic and dramatic; thirdly, according to the place and conditions of performance - theatrical, concert, chamber, etc.

The system of art genres is developing dynamically - new genres are appearing, the proportion of traditional ones is changing. There is no doubt that there is a modern tendency towards erasing boundaries and the synthesis of various types and genres of art.

MODERN ART

As you know, contemporary art is very diverse; it lacks any strict canons and rules. Works of contemporary art are often created within the framework of a sign-symbolic concept. According to the Spanish thinker and publicist X. Ortega y Gaset (1883 -1955), The development of art follows the path of “dehumanization,” i.e., overcoming the creator’s desire for limitless self-expression and the release of his emotional states. Obviously, the artist cannot depict nature or man in all their inconsistency and diversity - only individual, individually limited imprints of this inexhaustible wealth are available to him. The creator does not have to confess or preach, but by constructing his illusory world, he can become truly free and omnipotent - through the means of art he changes his own and our viewer’s vision of the world, directs aesthetic and non-aesthetic experiences when perceiving works of art. The artist has the necessary tool in his hands - metaphor (an artistic technique associated with the transfer of the properties of one object to another based on a common characteristic for them) - a kind of synthesis of thought and image that allows us to capture and express the various aspects of existence, bringing us closer to understanding the infinity of the world of human possibilities .

IN 1959 the first happy-hour took place in New York \

ning - an action performed by an artist in public - I

ke without a specific script. A man beating a live chicken on the strings of a piano, students licking the body of a car - the artistic meaning, value and outcome of the action were determined by random passers-by.

Thus, contemporary art is a kind of moving Ferris wheel with a constantly changing point of view. In fact, in modern art the sign component (language, a set of expressive means) turns from a means into the essence of an artistic image. Artistic images refer the viewer and reader not to reality itself, but to each other, building a complex hierarchy of hidden meanings. The very process of perceiving a work of art turns into a “deciphering” of sign-symbolic combinations. At the same time, the sign-symbolic nature of modern art makes it truly international, overcoming the limited communicative capabilities of national cultures.

JAS Basic concepts: art. ShhTerms: types of art, genres of art, sign, symbol.

Test yourself

1) What is art? What are its distinctive features? 2) What assumptions do researchers make about the reasons for the emergence of art? 3) How did thinkers of different historical eras understand the essence of art? 4) Name and briefly describe the main functions of art. 5) List the main types and genres of art.

Think, discuss, do

There is a well-known statement by an outstanding figure franc
Tsuz culture of the 20th century. J. Cocteau: “I know that art
absolutely necessary, but I don’t know why.” Bring
several explanations of why art is needed.
A scientist who studied the circle of the most active and
competent connoisseurs and connoisseurs of art, you did
waters that those “who don’t
life was good." Guess what is the function of art
as the main one was identified by the scientist. Give reasons for your answer.
Confirm or disprove with several examples
Here is his output.
A number of art critics noted the appearance at the turn
XX-XXI centuries midcult - a kind of synthesis of high
mass culture, which has absorbed the best features of both
species. Guess what signs they might have
works of mid-cult art.

Prepare short messages: a) about modern
directions of Western art; b) about outstanding people
purveyors of contemporary Russian art.
The most important trend in the development of modern art
quality is a synthesis of types and styles. Give a few
specific examples of such synthesis. Express your guess
ideas about the reasons for this trend.

Work with the source

Read a fragment of the thoughts of the famous Russian writer of the Silver Age Vyacheslav Ivanov about the mythologism of art.

In the circle of symbolic art, the symbol naturally reveals itself as the potency and germ of a myth. The organic course of development turns symbolism into myth-making. The internal necessary path of symbolism is predetermined and already foreshadowed. But myth is not a free fiction: true myth is a postulate of collective self-determination, and therefore not fiction at all, and by no means an allegory or personification, but a hypostasis of some essence or energy. [...] For the symbol is super-individual in nature, which is why it has the power to transform the most intimate silence of the individual mystical soul into an organ of universal unanimity and common feeling, like a word, and more powerful than an ordinary word. Thus, art, in its tendency towards myth-making, gravitates towards the type of great, popular art. [...]

The true content of an artistic image is always broader than its subject. The work of a genius tells us about something different, deeper, more beautiful, more tragic, more divine than what it directly expresses. In this sense it is always symbolic; but the fact that it is the volume of years with its symbol remains immense for the mind and unspeakable for the human word. For a work of art to have its full aesthetic effect, this incomprehensibility and immeasurability of its ultimate meaning must be felt. [...]

Ivanov IN. AND. Premonitions and omens // By the stars. - St. Petersburg, 1909. - S. 196-197, 200, 201.

Questions and assignments to the source. 1) How do you understand the connection between symbol and myth indicated by the author? 2) Explain why “myth is not a free fiction: true myth is a postulate of collective self-determination, and therefore is not fiction at all, and is by no means an allegory or personification.” 3) In what, according to V. Ivanov, is the symbolism of art manifested? 4) Using several examples, show the connection between mythology, as V. Ivanov understands it, and art. 5) Manifestations of what functions of art are indicated in the given text?

12-L N Bogolyubov, 11 class Shllll

Religion is a worldview and attitude, as well as corresponding behavior, based on belief in the existence of God or gods, the supernatural. An attribute of religious consciousness is a specially cultivated moral and emotional act - an act of faith. Religious faith consists of: 1) conviction (faith) in the truth of the fundamentals of religious teaching; 2) knowledge of religious dogmas; 3) recognition and adherence to religious moral norms; 4) mandatory compliance with religious rituals and regulations. Distinctive features of religion beliefs rituals ethos (moral view of the systemic position) world of symbols Basic approaches to the study of religion confessional (religious, atheistic) phenomenological (study of religion as a phenomenon)

Structure of religion: religious consciousness; religious cult; religious organization. There are two levels of religious consciousness: religious ideology (systematized presentation of religious dogmas); religious psychology (religious ideas and feelings of believers).

A religious cult is a system of symbolic actions through which believers seek to influence the supernatural. To unite believers, there are religious organizations and a special group of people, the clergy, which leads religious activities. The main organizational forms of religion are the church and sects. The Church is a hierarchical religious organization of clergy and believers, based on a community of religious dogmas and a cult system. Sects are relatively small in number, closed religious communities that do not share the views of the dominant church.

The functions of religion are the various ways of its activity, the nature and direction of the influence of religion on individuals and society. Functions of religion 1. Worldview (religious worldview, explanation of the world, nature, man, the meaning of his existence, worldview, world feeling, attitude). 2. Compensatory (social inequality is compensated by equality in sinfulness, suffering; human disunity is replaced by brotherhood in Christ, in the community, the powerlessness of man is compensated by the omnipotence of God. 3. Communicative (“communication with God” is the highest type of communication, it occurs in religious activities, communication between believers with a friend).

4. Regulatory (regulator of people’s behavior, organizes the thoughts, aspirations and actions of people, groups, communities with the help of certain ideas, values, attitudes, traditions). 5. Integrating (the direction of uniting people, their behavior, activities, thoughts, feelings, aspirations, efforts of social groups and institutions in order to maintain the stability of society, the stability of the individual, and a common religion). 6. Cultural transmission (introducing a person to cultural values and traditions of religious culture, development of writing, printing, art, transfer of accumulated heritage from generation to generation). 7. Legitimizing (legitimation of certain social orders, institutions, relations, norms, patterns from the point of view of the highest requirement - a maxim, on the basis of which certain phenomena are assessed and a certain attitude towards them is formed).

Initially, the object of worship was a real existing object - a fetish. Then a totem appears - a plant or animal that a person considered his ancestor and protector. Totemism is replaced by animism - belief in the universal animation of nature. Thus, in its development, religion goes through four stages: 1) belief in spirits; 2) polytheism (polytheism) - belief in gods, higher beings, similar to humans, but differing from him in power and immortality, personifying all the forces of the surrounding nature and exercising supreme leadership of various types of activities; 3) transition from polytheism to monotheism (monotheism); 4) the emergence of a religious cult beyond the borders of one nation.

Signs of world religions: 1) a huge number of followers (Christianity - about 1.4 billion, Islam - about 1 billion, Buddhism - about 350 million); 2) cosmopolitan nature: these religions go beyond the boundaries of individual nationalities and states; 3) egalitarianism, preaching national and social equality; 4) propaganda activity.

The oldest of the world's religions is Buddhism. It arose at the turn of the VI-V centuries. BC e. in India, and then spread to the countries of Southeast Asia and the Far East. Fundamentals of Buddhist belief: suffering rules the world; the cause of suffering is life itself with its passions and desires; You can escape from suffering only by plunging into nirvana; there is a path, a method by which one who knows the truth can get rid of suffering and achieve nirvana. Two paths of salvation: Hinayana (“narrow vehicle”) and Mahayana (“broad vehicle”). The legendary founder of this religion, Siddhartha Gautama, called Buddha (Enlightened One), developed an eight-step path to achieving truth and approaching nirvana: 1) righteous faith; 2) true determination; 3) righteous speech; 4) righteous deeds; 5) righteous life; 6) righteous thought; 7) righteous thoughts; 8) true contemplation. The goal of Buddhism is not to gain immortality, but to get rid of the rebirth of one’s soul (from karma).

Lhasa. Potala Palace (Buddha Mountain) For a long time, the palace was the residence of the Dalai Lamas. The complex includes more than 1000 rooms, covered with shrines and statues.

Statue of Buddha Sakyamuni. Jkong in Lhasa. The statue depicts Buddha at the age of 16. The statue is the size of a person. Cast from 5 metals (gold, silver, zinc, iron and copper), decorated with diamonds, rubies, lapis lazuli, emerald. Symbol of worship among Buddhists.

Christianity appears in the 3rd century. in a developed society with acute social contradictions. Thanks to the accessibility of its dogmas, Christianity has become the most widespread in the world. The main provisions of the doctrine: the original sinfulness of the human race (the original sin of Adam and Eve); divine trinity: God the Father (creator), God the Son (Jesus Christ, Savior) and God the Holy Spirit (personal experience of the authentication and existence of God), existing “inseparably, inseparably, but unmerged”; the divine-human nature of Jesus Christ (the son of a mortal woman and God); the suffering of Jesus and his death on the cross as atonement for human sins; the resurrection of Jesus as a guarantee of the salvation of the immortal souls of the righteous; belief in the existence of heaven for the righteous and hell for sinners; faith in the second coming of Jesus Christ for the judgment of the living and the dead, the encouragement of the righteous and the punishment of sinners, the establishment of the Kingdom of God on Earth; the cult of suffering as a repetition of the Passion of the Lord; the commandment of love for all humanity, complete spiritual humility and self-abasement. The main branches of Christianity are: 1) Orthodoxy; 2) Catholicism; 3) Protestantism.

In the center of the hall there is a chapel (Edicule), which has two limits: the limit of the Angel and the Life-Giving Holy Sepulcher - a cave (length - 2 m, width - 1.5 m). It contains a marble tombstone embedded in the wall. For many centuries now, on Holy Saturday, a miraculous appearance of the Holy Fire has occurred at the Holy Sepulcher.

Cathedral of Christ the Savior (g.g.)

Notre Dame de Paris (Notre Dame Cathedral) was founded in 1163 by Louis VII. It was built over 100 years. Accommodates up to people.

Islam is the youngest of the world's religions; it arose in the 7th century. The founder is Muhammad, a historical figure. Basic principles of religion: there is no God but Allah, monotheism; a person is not able to influence the course of events, everything is in the hands of Allah (the idea of predestination), faith in the justice of Allah; prophetic mission of Muhammad; prayer (namaz) five times a day; obligatory post; hajj - pilgrimage to Mecca; obligatory almsgiving to the poor; jihad is the fight against infidels; the prophet himself understood jihad as a spiritual struggle, and not a war with weapons; belief in the resurrection, the Last Judgment, the existence of heaven and hell; establishing not only moral, but also legal norms. (Sharia is Muslim law based on the Koran and Sunnah). - What unites all these world religions? - What differences between them did you see?

Dome of the Rock Mosque in Jerusalem This is where Abraham prepared to sacrifice his son Isaac. Later, King Solomon built the Temple in which the Ark of the Covenant was kept. The "Dome of the Rock" marks the place from which Muhammad ascended to heaven. The temple contains the footprint of the Prophet and three hairs from his beard.

Main aspects of the principle of freedom of conscience: 1. The principle of separation of religious organizations from the state provides for non-interference by the state in the internal life of religious organizations. 2. The secular nature of state education presupposes: equal access for representatives of all religious faiths and atheists to receive state-guaranteed education; prohibition of any forms of religious and atheistic propaganda in educational institutions; educating the younger generation in the spirit of tolerance towards manifestations of dissent. 3. The ability to freely practice your cult.

Summary of lessons - What do you see as the reasons for the special popularity of early forms of religion today? Why do people increasingly turn to magicians, palmists, and astrologers? - There is an opinion that the increase in the percentage of believers among young people in our country is connected not so much with faith in God, but with the attractiveness of wedding rites, baptism, communion, etc. What do you think?

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The role of religion in the life of society Goals and objectives: to introduce the essence of religion, to show signs of religious consciousness, the role of religion in the life of society, the main ideas of each of the world religions, to explain the essence of the principle of freedom of conscience

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The functions of religion are the various ways of its activity, the nature and direction of the influence of religion on individuals and society. Functions of religion 1. Worldview (religious worldview, explanation of the world, nature, man, the meaning of his existence, worldview, worldview, attitude). 2. Compensatory (social inequality is compensated by equality in sinfulness, suffering; human disunity is replaced by brotherhood in Christ, in the community, the powerlessness of man is compensated by the omnipotence of God. 3. Communicative (“communication with God” is the highest type of communication, it occurs in religious activities, communication between believers with a friend).

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Religions of the world National World Tribal Christianity Orthodoxy Catholicism Protestantism 2. Islam Sunnism Shiism 3. Buddhism Hinduism Sikhism Shintoism Judaism Confucianism Fetishism Totemism Ancestor cult Shamanism Magic

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World religions Buddhism Christianity Islam - Hinayana - Tantrism - Lamaism - Mahayana - Orthodoxy - Catholicism - Protestantism - Sunnism - Shiism - Kharijism

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The oldest of the world's religions is Buddhism. It arose at the turn of the VI-V centuries. BC e. in India, and then spread to the countries of Southeast Asia and the Far East. Fundamentals of Buddhist belief: suffering rules the world; the cause of suffering is life itself with its passions and desires; You can escape from suffering only by plunging into nirvana; there is a path, a method by which one who knows the truth can get rid of suffering and achieve nirvana. Two paths of salvation: Hinayana (“narrow vehicle”) and Mahayama (“broad vehicle”). The legendary founder of this religion, Siddhartha Gautama, called Buddha (Enlightened One), developed an eight-step path to achieving truth and approaching nirvana: 1) righteous faith; 2) true determination; 3) righteous speech; 4) righteous deeds; 5) righteous life; 6) righteous thought; 7) righteous thoughts; 8) true contemplation. The goal of Buddhism is not to gain immortality, but to get rid of the rebirth of your soul (from karma).

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Lhasa. Potala Palace (Buddha Mountain) For a long time, the palace was the residence of the Dalai Lamas. The complex includes more than 1,000 rooms, sheltering 10,000 shrines and 20,000 statues.

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Jerusalem. Church of the Holy Sepulcher. Construction of the temple began under Emperor Constantine in 326. The temple was built over the cave where Christ was buried. Four churches have rights to the temple: Roman Catholic, Jerusalem, Armenian and Coptic.

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Christianity appears in the I-II centuries. in a developed society with acute social contradictions. Thanks to the accessibility of its dogmas, Christianity has become the most widespread in the world. The main provisions of the doctrine: the original sinfulness of the human race (the original sin of Adam and Eve); divine trinity: God the Father (creator), God the Son (Jesus Christ, Savior) and God the Holy Spirit (personal experience of the authentication and existence of God), existing “inseparably, inseparably, but unmerged”; the divine-human nature of Jesus Christ (the son of a mortal woman and God); the suffering of Jesus and his death on the cross as atonement for human sins; the resurrection of Jesus as a guarantee of the salvation of the immortal souls of the righteous; belief in the existence of heaven for the righteous and hell for sinners; faith in the second coming of Jesus Christ for the judgment of the living and the dead, the encouragement of the righteous and the punishment of sinners, the establishment of the Kingdom of God on Earth; the cult of suffering as a repetition of the Passion of the Lord; the commandment of love for all humanity, complete spiritual humility and self-abasement. The main branches of Christianity are: 1) Orthodoxy; 2) Catholicism; 3) Protestantism.

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Entrance to the Church of the Holy Sepulcher A low gate leads into the temple courtyard. As you enter the courtyard, you can see the Stone of Anointing, on which the body of Christ lay after being taken down from the cross.

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Assumption Cathedral of the Trinity-Sergius Lavra (Sergiev Posad) Was founded in 1345 by Sergius of Radonezh. Trinity Monastery played a prominent role in the political, spiritual and cultural life of the state.