To form a concept of “classicism” as a ideological and artistic direction and style in European art 17th century. To substantiate the position that the principles of classicism were associated with antiquity, which was considered as an ethical and artistic norm. Using specific examples, identify the characteristic features of classicism: citizenship, heroic pathos, plastic harmony and clarity. Using the example of the Versailles ensemble (the king's palace, landscape gardens) to show the main features of the new direction in architecture. Note that the main idea of ​​the park is to create a special world where everything is subject to strict laws, and, above all, the laws of beauty.

Independent work: messages about the Louvre as an art museum, about Place Vendôme as an example of a change in the content side of classicism, when art turns into a means of ideological propaganda. Repeat the meaning of the terms: facade, colonnade, order, order system, religious architecture, ensemble, perspective, building exterior, interior, pilasters, regular park.

6.5. Nicolas Poussin and Claude Lorrain

To form an understanding of the principles of classicism embodied in painting.

Consider the paintings of Poussin, note that they were dominated by ancient themes, even his landscapes are populated by mythological heroes who act as a symbol of the spirituality of the world. It should be noted that the principles of classicism are also evident in the composition of the artist’s works: it is simple, logical, and orderly. Spatial plans are clearly separated, and this separation is emphasized by color. “Landscape tricolor” in Poussin’s paintings. The artist talks about the role of color in a painting. Poussin's school of painting. A comparison of the works of two French classicist artists. The originality of Lorrain's landscapes: subtlety of color, masterfully constructed perspective, play of tones, depiction of air and light on canvas. Lorrain as the founder of the traditions of French landscape.

The negative impact of norms and rules in artistic creativity on the development of French art. The plot should only be from history, the Bible or mythology; dividing the composition into clear plans; orientation when choosing proportions and volumes of a figure only to the sculptures of ancient masters; education was supposed to take place only within the walls of the academy.

Independent work: compare fragments of Ovid’s epic “Metamorphoses” and Poussin’s painting “The Kingdom of Flora”.

6.6. "Small" Dutch

To form an idea of ​​the democratization of Dutch culture in the first half of the 17th century; reveal the leading role of easel realistic painting in Dutch art.

Introduce the recreation of reality in landscapes and still lifes of Dutch painters, combined with keen sense beauty. The desire to embody the poetry of everyday life, the beauty of human everyday life in works of the everyday genre. "Little Dutchmen" The significance of the work of F. Hals in the formation of the Dutch art school. Characterize the work of Jan Wermeer of Delft, Pieter de Hooch, J. and S. Ruisdael, Terborch, J. Steen and others.

Independent work: analysis of the works of Wermeer of Delft and F. Hals.

6.7. Rembrandt

To form an idea of ​​the work of Rembrandt van Rijn - the pinnacle of realistic art.

Introduce life and creative way Rembrandt. To reveal the enormous spiritual significance and philosophical depth of Rembrandt’s art; the role of light as a means of enhancing emotional expressiveness in his paintings. Introduce the picturesque texture of his paintings. Reveal the depth of psychological characteristics, a reflection of everything life path man, his spiritual purity in later portraits. Pay attention to the high skill of execution and depth of content in Rembrandt's etchings.

Independent work: determining a person’s character from portraits by Rembrandt, identifying the artistic features of individual works.

6.8. Flemish art of the 17th century. Rubens.

Form ideas about the Flemish school painting XVII century; about the realistic basis and enormous life-affirming power of the work of P. Rubens, about the work of A. Van Eyck, J. Jordaens, F. Snyders.

Reveal Rubens's versatile talents, his painting skills (contrast, tension, dynamism of images); personality traits. P. Rubens. “Landscape with stone carriers” (morning, afternoon, evening in one work). Rhythmic organization of the image. Rhythm is a means of ensuring the spatio-temporal unity of a work of art, while the rhythm simultaneously dictates the principle of its perception.

A. Van Dyck’s desire to embody in portraits the ideal of a spiritually refined personality. Realistic traditions, love of life in the painting of J. Jordaens. Still lifes by F. Snyders.

Independent work: analysis of one of Rubens’ works.

6.9. Art of France of the 18th century. Rococo

To form an idea of ​​the crisis of absolutism in France; the fundamental influence of the philosophy of the Enlightenment; about the formation of the Rococo style as an offshoot of the fading Baroque.

To introduce realistic observation and the transmission of the psychological complexity of feelings in the works of A. Watteau. Reveal the tenderness of the brushstroke, the richness of the finest colors in Watteau’s paintings. Pastoral genre in the works of Boucher.

Independent work: preparing reports on paintings by J. B. Chardin.

6.10. Painting and sculpture of French sentimentalism and classicism of the 18th century

To form an idea of ​​French sentimentalism and the emergence of a new wave of classicism.

To introduce the philosopher Diderot’s belief that art is intended to correct morals; paintings by Jean Baptiste Greuze (1725 - 1805), which are of a moralizing nature. J. B. Greuze “The Paralytic” (1763). A feeling of dynamics and celebration of life in the work of O. Fragonard - a master of drawing and a subtle colorist. Connection with Rococo in pointedly piquant and at the same time ironic situations. O. Fragonard “Swing” (1767), “Stolen Kiss” (1870s). Passion of emotions, emotional excitement, creative impulsiveness of portraits. O. Fragonard “Portrait of Diderot”, “Inspiration” (1769).

Talk about changes in sculpture in the middle of the 18th century: a turn to realism, accompanied by a search for heroic images, and a turn to antiquity. High achievements of monumental sculpture of the 18th century in the work of Etienne Maurice Falconet (1716 - 1791). The image of an ideal personality, a legislator of the country, which the enlighteners of the 18th century dreamed of. " Bronze Horseman"in St. Petersburg (1766 - 1782). The versatility of characteristics, psychologism, harsh truth and faith in man in the sculptural portraits of Antoine Houdon (1741 - 1828). Marble statue of eighty-four-year-old Voltaire (1781).

Independent work: make notes in a notebook; prepare a message about the creation of the “Bronze Horseman”.

6.11. English School 18th century painting

To form an idea of ​​the influence of the English Enlightenment on the culture of England in the 18th century.

Reveal the accusatory nature of W. Hogarth's art, combined with bourgeois moralizing. The creation of a high heroic ideal of a man of his time in the work of Joshua Reynolds, a painter and art theorist. Poetry, dreaminess. The spirituality of images and virtuosity of execution in the portraits of Thomas Gainsborough.

Independent work: vocabulary work; write down the title of the paintings and the names of the artists.

6.12. Baroque and classicism ornament

To form an idea of ​​the ornament of two opposing systems - Baroque and Classicism as the heirs of the Renaissance, dividing among themselves all its acquisitions: Baroque inherited the acquisition of the soul, the emotional conclusions of the Renaissance, and Classicism - the rational side of the great era.

Tell us that the style of Baroque ornaments corresponded to its time and reflected the greatness of royal and aristocratic power. The antique style is the parent of the baroque and classicism styles. The difference is that in the Baroque style it is refracted more dynamically and curvilinearly, while the classicism ornament is characterized by immobility of symmetry, a tendency towards geometrization without symbols. White combined with gold are the most popular baroque interior colors. Fashion for floral designs. The calm classical forms of circles and ovals are replaced by winding spirals. Convex-concave surface of walls and interior parts. Fabric decoration. Large decorative flowers of fancy shapes, ornamental curls, acanthus leaves, pomegranate fruits and grape bunches, a diamond-shaped mesh with rosettes are the main designs of fabrics of this time. The composition of the pattern also included crowns, vases, and baskets. Details of garden and park architecture. Large sizes of patterns.

Independent work: copying samples of baroque and classicism ornaments.

SECTION 7. RUSSIAN ART OF THE 18TH CENTURY

Unlike Italy, in absolutist France architecture and art served to glorify the monarch, not the church.

The urban redevelopment carried out in the 17th century in Paris differed from the Roman one in that the squares, as well as the large avenues, were independent of the buildings that were symbols of the city.

French Baroque manifested itself most clearly in secular architecture - in the construction of palaces, castles, houses for the bourgeoisie and public buildings. The predominant type of palace is U-shaped, consisting of a central building and side projections. The building is inextricably linked with the park laid out behind it and the honorary courtyard in front of the facade. The courtyard was fenced off from the street with a gilded grille. Often such gratings themselves were wonderful works of art by Baroque bronze casters. Thanks to the architect's innovation J.A.Mansara , which raised the roof and gave the attic space functionality, attics appeared (attic-type living space formed on the top floor of a house with mansard roof). The picturesqueness was added by bright roofs, laid out either with colored checkerboard tiles or with slate and entwined with grapes or ivy that turned red in autumn. Examples of French architecture modeled after Italian are Four Nations College (1662) works Louis Levo .

Church at the Sorbonne (1635) Jacques Lemercier ,

Cathedral of the Invalides (1706) Jules Hardouin-Mansart – examples of Baroque religious buildings.

TO
Lod Perrault (1613 – 1688) creates a project for the main eastern facade Louvre (1667 – 1673) – royal palace in paris . His work embodied the ideas and moods closest to the French: severity and solemnity, scale and extreme simplicity. The eastern façade of the Louvre became an example of purely French baroque. It is fifteen meters longer than the actual length of the building, divided into tiers, decorated with an order with columns standing in pairs. The central protruding part of the facade is decorated with a portico with a pediment. This three-part composition was typical for the facades of palaces and state villas of the Renaissance. The master managed to show that old traditions still remain a source of beauty.

Question 22. The ensemble of Versailles in Paris (palace and park ensemble)

TO
One of the outstanding architectural structures of world architecture is the well-known palace and park ensemble at Versailles, built under the auspices of such brilliant masters as Louis Leveau, Jules Hardouin-Mansart and Andre Le Nôtre. The layout of the extensive park and the areas associated with the Palace of Versailles are the pinnacle of French park art, and the palace itself is a first-class architectural monument. They created a complex, complete architectural complex, which included a monumental palace building and a number of park structures of “small forms”, and, most importantly, a park that was exceptional in its compositional integrity.

A
The architecture of the palace is distinguished by great unity. Strongly stretched horizontally, the palace building harmonizes well with the strict geometrically correct layout of the park and the natural environment. The second, main floor of the palace is divided into a row of columns and pilasters, strict in proportions and details, resting on a heavy rusticated base. The topmost, smaller floor is conceived as an attic crowning the building, giving the image of the palace greater monumentality and representativeness.

It is noteworthy that the layout of the park, made by Le Nôtre, is distinguished by classical purity and clarity of lines and shapes. Le Nôtre was the most consistent exponent of the aesthetic and ethical ideal of classicism. He saw the natural environment as an object of intelligent human activity. Le Nôtre transforms the natural landscape into an impeccably clear, complete architectural system based on the principles of rationality and order.

It should be noted that nature took strictly geometric forms in it, as if prescribed to it by the human mind. The park is distinguished by the clear symmetry of alleys and ponds, strictly calibrated rows of trimmed trees and flower beds, and the solemn dignity of the statues located in it.

Construction of the palace began in 1661 and more than 30 thousand builders were involved in the work (to increase the number of workers, Louis banned all private construction in the vicinity of the city, and in peacetime soldiers and sailors were sent to construction).

Despite the fact that during construction they saved on literally everything, in the end a huge amount of money was spent - 25 million liras or 19.5 tons of silver (almost 260 billion euros).

In the final version, the total area of ​​the palace premises, not including the park, was about 67 thousand square meters. It had 25 thousand windows, 67 staircases, 372 statues. The castle is in a classic style, lined with pink marble. Monarchs were used for a wide variety of purposes: from meetings with favorites to hunting.

M
scarlet Trianon.

D
The vortex represents a transition from the Rococo style to classicism and was built on the initiative of one of the favorites of Louis XV, the Marquise de Pompadour. True, she died several years before the completion of construction, and therefore another favorite, Countess DuBarry, lived in it. When Louis XVI became king, he handed over the castle to Marie Antoinette, where she took a break from palace life (even the king had no right to come here without her permission).

Park and gardens. The Palace of Versailles and the park are two inseparable concepts. The gardens of Versailles consist of a huge number of terraces, which gradually decrease as they move away from the castle. They occupy an area of ​​about one hundred hectares, and this entire territory is absolutely flat and it is impossible to find any small hill on it.

There are several palace buildings here, among them the Grand and Petit Trianon, the Empress Theater, the Belvedere, the Temple of Love, the French pavilion, a grotto, as well as observation decks, alleys, sculptures, a system of fountains and canals, which is why the gardens of Versailles are nicknamed “ little Venice."

Details Category: Fine arts and architecture of the late 16th-18th centuries Published 04/20/2017 18:22 Views: 2821

Absolutism in France in the 17th century. considered devotion to the monarch the height of patriotism. The famous phrase of King Louis XIV: “I am the state.”

But it is also known that at this time a new philosophical direction- rationalism, which considered the human mind to be the basis of knowledge. One of the founders of the new doctrine, Rene Descartes, argued: “I think, therefore I exist.”
Based on this philosophy, the a new style in art - classicism. It was built on the models of antiquity and the Renaissance.

Architecture

Architecture changed its priorities and moved away from fortified cities to residential cities.

Maison-Laffite

Maison-Laffite- the famous castle (palace) in the suburb of Paris of the same name, one of the few surviving creations of the architect Francois Mansart.

Francois Mansart(1598-1666) - French architect, considered not only the greatest master French Baroque, but also the founder of classicism in France.
The Maisons-Laffite Palace differs, for example, from the Luxembourg Palace in Paris, which resembles a castle fenced off from the outside world. Maison-Laffite has a U-shape, there is no longer a closed space.
A park was usually built around the palace, characterized by an ideal order: the plants were trimmed, the alleys intersected at right angles, and the flower beds were of regular geometric shape. It was the so-called regular (French) park.

Palace and park ensemble of Versailles

The ensemble of Versailles is considered the pinnacle of a new direction in architecture. This is a huge ceremonial residence of the French kings, built near Paris.
Versailles was built under the leadership of Louis XIV from 1661. It became an artistic and architectural expression of the idea of ​​absolutism. Architects: Louis Levo and Jules Hardouin-Mansart.
The creator of the park is Andre Le Nôtre.

Carlo Maratta. Portrait of André Le Nôtre (c. 1680)

The Versailles ensemble is the largest in Europe. It is distinguished by the unique integrity of its design, the harmony of architectural forms and landscape. Before the French Revolution, Versailles was the official royal residence. In 1801 it received the status of a museum and is open to the public. In 1979, the Palace of Versailles and the park were included in the World Heritage List cultural heritage UNESCO.

Parterre in front of the greenhouse

Versailles is an example of a synthesis of arts: architecture, sculpture and landscape art. In 1678-1689 The ensemble of Versailles was rebuilt under the direction of Jules Hardouin-Mansart. All buildings were decorated in the same style, the facades of the buildings were divided into three tiers. The lower one, modeled on an Italian Renaissance palazzo, is decorated with rustication, the middle one is filled with high arched windows, between which there are columns and pilasters. The upper tier is shortened and ends with a balustrade (a fence consisting of a series of figured columns connected by railings) and sculptural groups.
The park of the ensemble, designed by Andre Le Nôtre, has a clear layout: geometric swimming pools with a mirror-smooth surface. Each major alley ends with a reservoir: the main staircase from the terrace of the Grand Palace leads to the Latona fountain; At the end of the Royal Avenue there is the Apollo Fountain and the canal. main idea park - the creation of a unique place where everything is subject to strict laws.

Fountains of Versailles

Latona Fountain

At the end of the XVII- early XVII 1st century art in France gradually began to turn into a means of ideology. In the Place Vendôme in Paris, the subordination of art to politics is already visible.

Place Vendôme. Architect Jules Hardouin-Mansart

In the center of Place Vendôme there is a 44-meter Vendôme Column with a statue of Napoleon on top, modeled after the Roman Column of Trajan.

Vendôme Column

The closed quadrangle of the square with cut corners is surrounded by administrative buildings with a single decoration system.
One of the most significant monumental buildings of the 17th century. in France - the Cathedral of the Invalides (1680-1706).

Bird's eye view of the Invalides' Home

The Palais des Invalides (State House of the Invalids) began to be built by order of Louis XIV in 1670 as a home for elderly soldiers (“invalids of war”). Today it still accepts people with disabilities, but it also houses several museums and a military necropolis.
The Cathedral of the Invalides Palace was created by Jules Hardouin-Mansart. The cathedral with its powerful dome changed the panorama of the city.

Cathedral

Cathedral dome

East façade of the Louvre

Louvre. Eastern façade. Architect K. Perrault. Length 173 m

The eastern façade of the Louvre (Colonnade) is a striking example of French classicism. The project was chosen through a competition. Among the participants were famous masters, but the victory was won by an unknown architect Claude Perrault(1613-1688), since it was his work that embodied the main ideas of the French: severity and solemnity, scale and simplicity.

Sculpture

In the second half of the 17th century. French classicism already served to glorify the monarchy, therefore, from the sculpture that decorated the palaces, what was required was not so much classical severity and harmony, but solemnity and splendor. Effectiveness, expressiveness, monumentality - these are the main features of French sculpture of the 17th century. The traditions of the Italian Baroque, especially the work of Lorenzo Bernini, helped in this.

Sculptor François Girardon (1628-1715)

G. Rigo. Portrait of Francois Girardon

He studied in Rome with Bernini. Girardon completed the sculptural part of the Apollo Gallery in the Louvre. Since 1666, he has been working in Versailles - creating the sculptural group “The Abduction of Proserpina by Pluto”, the sculptural group “Apollo and the Nymphs” (1666-1673), the relief of the reservoir “Bathing Nymphs” (1675), “The Abduction of Persephone” (1677-1699) , “Victory of France over Spain”, sculpture “Winter” (1675-1683), etc.

F. Girardon “Victory of France over Spain” (1680-1682), Palace of Versailles

Among best works sculptor - an equestrian statue of King Louis XIV (1683), which adorned the Place Vendôme in Paris and was destroyed during the Great French Revolution 1789-1799

F. Girardon. Equestrian statue of Louis XIV (c. 1699). Bronze. Louvre (Paris)

This is a smaller copy of the equestrian monument of Louis XIV, which adorned Place Vendôme. The model was an ancient Roman statue of Emperor Marcus Aurelius. The monument fit perfectly into the architectural ensemble of the square. Girardon's work throughout the 18th century. served as a model for equestrian monuments of European sovereigns. A hundred years later, the monument - a symbol of royal power - was destroyed.

Antoine Coyzevox (1640-1720)

French Baroque sculptor. He worked a lot in Versailles: he designed the War Hall and the Gallery of Mirrors.

Mirror gallery at Versailles

Coyzevox also created sculptural portraits, which were distinguished by their accuracy and psychological characteristics. He used Baroque techniques: unexpected poses, free movements, lush attire.

Pierre Puget (1620-1694)

Pierre Puget. Self-Portrait (Louvre)

Pierre Pugene is the most talented master of that time: French painter, sculptor, architect and engineer. His work shows the influence of Bernini and classical theater.

Pierre Puget "Milon of Croton with a lion" (Louvre)

Puget's sculptures are distinguished by their vital convincingness in conveying tension and suffering, combining expression with clarity of composition. Sometimes he gets carried away with exaggeration and theatricality of poses and movements. But his style was very consistent with the tastes of his era. His compatriots even called him the French Michelangelo and Rubens.

Painting

In the 17th century The Royal Academy of Paris was established, it became the center artistic activity and followed this path throughout the long reign of Louis XIV. All branches of art were centralized.
Charles Lebrun was appointed the first painter of the court.

Charles Lebrun (1619-1690)

Nicola Largilliere. Portrait of the artist Charles Lebrun

He personally led the Academy, influenced the tastes and worldview of an entire generation of artists, becoming the most important figure in the “style of Louis XIV.” In 1661, the king ordered Le Brun a series of paintings from the history of Alexander the Great; the first of them brought the artist nobility and the title of “First Royal Painter” and a lifelong pension.

C. Lebrun “The Entry of Alexander into Babylon” (1664)

Since 1662, Lebrun controlled all artistic orders of the court. He personally painted the halls of the Apollo Gallery in the Louvre, the interiors of the Castle of Saint-Germain and Versailles (War Hall and Peace Hall). But the artist died before finishing the painting of Versailles, which was completed according to his sketches by Noel Coypel.

Ch. Lebrun “Equestrian portrait of Louis XIV” (1668). Chartreuse Museum (Douai)

Pierre Mignard (1612-1695)

Pierre Mignard. Self-portrait

Famous French artist. He competed with Lebrun. Became head of the Academy of St. Luke in Paris, opposed to the Royal Academy. In 1690, after Le Brun's death, he became the chief court artist, director of the royal art museums and manufactories, a member and professor of the Paris Academy of Painting and Sculpture, and then its rector and chancellor. At almost 80 years of age, he created designs for paintings in the Cathedral of the Invalides, which are still kept in the Louvre, painted two lampshades in the small apartments of the king in the Palace of Versailles, painted a series of delicately colored religious paintings: “Christ and the Samaritan Woman,” 1690 (Louvre) ; "Saint Cecilia", 1691 (Louvre); "Faith" and "Hope", 1692.
The main advantage of his works is the harmonious color. But in general, he paid tribute to his time in art: external brilliance, theatrical composition, graceful, but affected figures.

P. Mignard “Virgin with grapes”

These shortcomings are least noticeable in his portraits. He owns numerous portraits of courtiers, the king's favorites and Louis XIV himself, whom he painted about ten times.

P. Mignard. Equestrian portrait of Louis XIV

Of Mignard's fresco works, the most important were the painting in the dome of Val-de-Grâce, which soon deteriorated due to the poor quality of the paints, and the mythological wall paintings in great hall Palace of Saint-Cloud, who perished along with this building in 1870.

Pierre Mignard. Fresco of the dome of Val-de-Grâce "The Glory of God"

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Architecture in FranceXVIIcentury. The problem of defining style

Introduction

The great geographical discoveries that began in the Renaissance, followed by the colonization of the New World, then the victory of heliocentric cosmogony, the theory of the infinity of worlds were supposed to shake the consciousness of people and change their worldview. Renaissance anthropocentrism and naive faith in the harmony of the world no longer met the spiritual needs of man. If anthropocentrism remains unshakable, then where is this center in the infinity of the Universe? “The entire visible world is just a barely noticeable touch in the vast bosom of nature. Man in infinity - what does he mean? - Pascal wrote in the 17th century, as if in response to the Renaissance idea of ​​​​man as a “great miracle”, which God placed at the head of the world. In the 17th century, man already understands that he is neither the center of the Universe nor the measure of all things.

The difference in understanding the place, role and capabilities of man is what distinguishes, first of all, the art of the 17th century from the Renaissance. This different attitude towards man is expressed with extraordinary clarity and precision by the same great French thinker Pascal: “Man is just a reed, the weakest of nature’s creations, but he is a thinking reed.” Man created the most powerful absolutist states in Europe in the 17th century and shaped the worldview of the bourgeoisie, who was to become one of the main customers and connoisseurs of art in subsequent times. The complexity and inconsistency of the era of intensive formation of absolutist national states in Europe determined the nature of the new culture, which is usually associated in the history of art with the Baroque style, but which is not limited to this style. The 17th century is not only Baroque art, but also classicism and realism [Ilyina 2000: 102] .

1. Architectural style in France 17th century

The history of art is sometimes viewed as a history of successive styles. The semicircular arches of the Romanesque style were replaced by Gothic pointed arches, and later the Renaissance, which originated in Italy, spread throughout Europe, defeating the Gothic style. At the end of the Renaissance, a style emerged that was called “Baroque.” However, while previous styles have easily distinguishable characteristics, identifying the characteristics of Baroque is not so easy. The fact is that throughout the historical period from the Renaissance to the 20th century, architects operated with the same forms, drawn from the arsenal of ancient architecture - columns, pilasters, cornices, relief decoration, and so on. IN in a certain sense it would be fair to say that the Renaissance style dominated from the beginning of Brunelleschi’s work until our time, and in many works on architecture this entire period is designated by the concept “Renaissance”. Of course, over such a long period of time, tastes, and with them architectural forms, have undergone significant changes, and to reflect these changes, the need arose for smaller style categories.

It is curious that many concepts denoting styles were at first just abusive, contemptuous nicknames. Thus, the Italians of the Renaissance called “Gothic” a style that they considered barbaric, brought by the Gothic tribes - the destroyers of the Roman Empire. In the word “mannerism” we can still discern the original meaning of mannerism, superficial imitation, which critics of the 17th century accused artists of the previous era of. The word "baroque", meaning "bizarre", "ridiculous", "strange", also arose later as a caustic mockery in the fight against XVII style century. This label was used by those who considered arbitrary combinations of classical forms in architecture unacceptable. With the word “baroque” they branded willful deviations from the strict norms of the classics, which for them was tantamount to bad taste. Nowadays it is no longer so easy to see the differences between these directions in architecture. We are accustomed to structures in which there is both a daring challenge to classical rules and their complete misunderstanding [Gombrich 1998: 289].

Art historians cannot come to a consensus regarding the style in art of that time. The main question is how to distinguish between such concepts as baroque and classicism. Let’s say right away that for different countries works of art that belong to one style or another will have their own characteristics. It is also worth noting that the existence of style in different parts Europe has its own duration, which means the time frame will be blurred. Let us turn to one of the modern dictionaries to identify the main features of the Baroque. Baroque- (from Italian barocco - bizarre, strange), an artistic style that occupied a leading position in European art from the late 16th to the mid-18th centuries. Originated in Italy. The term was introduced in late XIX century by Swiss art historians J. Burckhardt and G. Wölfflin. The style covered all types of creativity: literature, music, theater, but was especially pronounced in architecture, fine and decorative arts. The Renaissance feeling of the clear harmony of the universe was replaced by a dramatic understanding of the conflict of existence, the endless diversity, vastness and constant variability of the surrounding world, and the power of powerful natural elements over man. The expressiveness of Baroque works is often built on contrasts, dramatic collisions of the sublime and the base, the majestic and the insignificant, the beautiful and the ugly, the illusory and the real, light and darkness. A penchant for composing complex and verbose allegories went hand in hand with extreme naturalism. Baroque works of art were distinguished by redundancy of forms, passion and intensity of images. More than ever before, there was a strong feeling of the “theater of life”: fireworks, masquerades, a passion for dressing up, impersonation, all kinds of “deceptions” brought a playful element into a person’s life, unprecedented entertainment and bright festivity [National Historical Encyclopedia: http://interpretive.ru /dictionary/968/word/baroko].

In his book “Baroque. Architecture between 1600 and 1750" Frederic Dassa writes: "The term "Baroque" cannot be given a concrete definition, and the question arises whether it is worth doing so. In many respects, this problem relates more to historiography than to history. The concept of Baroque, developed in the last century for the rehabilitation of two centuries of Italian art, cannot be transferred into the field of study of Spanish, Dutch, English or French art, whose meaning is not determined by a more or less pronounced desire to imitate Roman or Turin artists and architects" [Dassa 2002 : 127]. Koch writes that: “The style of this absolutist era - from about 1600 to 1800 - is Baroque<…>Throughout Europe, Baroque permeates everything: sculpture and painting, which fit into architectural structures without difficulty and transition periods, music, which gives the final touch of brilliance, fanatical religiosity to court and church holidays, literature, as well as such everyday things as furniture, clothing or hairstyles, manner of speaking. Baroque art addresses the entire society and is personified by it” [Koch 2005: 236]. An important detail in Koch's study is that he identifies several movements in this period: the Baroque movement and the Classical movement, which determines the development of architecture primarily in France and northern Europe. Indeed, the Baroque style with its usual features did not receive such development in France as it did in Italy, so there is a point of view that the Baroque style did not develop here at all, and Baroque monuments are classified as classicism monuments.

Let us turn to one of the modern editions of the French dictionary “Le Petit Robert des noms propres” to introduce the concept of “classicism” into our work. "Classicism is a term that, in a narrow sense, applies to French literature and the art of the reign of Louis XIV, and in a broader sense defines the aesthetic ideal of rigor and restraint inherent in numerous writers and artists in France and other countries since the 17th century.” In the same dictionary entry in the section on architecture, “le premier classicisme” (literally “the first classicism”) and “le second classicisme” (literally “the second classicism”) are distinguished, which is due to the difference in the development of architecture in the period before the reign of Louis XIV, when French classicism was still strongly influenced by the art of Italy, and directly during the reign of the “Sun King”.

The 17th century was the time of the formation of a unified French state, the French nation. In the second half of the century, France is the most powerful absolutist power in Western Europe. This was also the time of the formation of the French national school in fine arts, the formation of the classicist movement, the birthplace of which is rightfully considered France [Ilyina 2000: 129].

When studying the issue of style in the architecture of the 17th century in France, one may encounter such a concept as “Baroque classicism”, which, in our opinion, can reconcile two different views on style in the architecture of that period. However, in this work we will adhere to the point of view presented in the General Encyclopedia of the Arts, namely, to define the architectural style in France of the 17th century as classicism and to distinguish two periods of its development.

2. Architecture of the first halfXVIIcentury

2 .1 Urban planning in France in the era of absolutism

architectural style classicism baroque

In the first half and middle of the 17th century, the principles of classicism took shape and gradually took root in French architecture. The state system of absolutism also contributes to this.

Construction and control over it are concentrated in the hands of the state. A new position of "architect to the king" and "first architect to the king" is introduced. Huge amounts of money are spent on construction. Government agencies control construction not only in Paris, but also in the provinces.

Urban planning work is being carried out widely throughout the country. New cities arise as military outposts or settlements near the palaces and castles of the kings and rulers of France. In most cases, new cities are designed as a square or rectangle in plan, or as more complex polygonal shapes formed by defensive walls, ditches, bastions and towers. Inside them, a strictly regular rectangular or radial-ring system of streets with a city square in the center is planned. As an example, we can point out the cities of Vitry Vitry-le-Francois, Saarlouis, Henrichmont, Marl, Richelieu, etc. [cm. Appendix Fig. 12].

Old medieval cities are being rebuilt on the basis of new principles of regular planning. Straight highways are being laid, urban ensembles and geometrically correct squares are being built on the site of a chaotic network of medieval streets.

In the urban planning of the Classical era, the main problem becomes a large urban ensemble with development carried out according to a single plan. In 1615, the first planning work was carried out in Paris in the northwestern part of the city, and the island of Saint-Louis was built up. New bridges are being built and the city's boundaries are expanding.

Large palace complexes are being built on the left and right banks of the Seine - the Luxembourg Palace and the Palais Royal (1624, architect - J. Lemercier). Further development urban planning work in Paris was expressed in the creation of two regular-shaped (square and triangular) squares included in the medieval development of the city: Place Royale (1606-1612, architect L. Meteso) and Place Dauphine (started in 1605) in the western part Site Island [Bykov, Kaptereva 1969: http://artyx.ru/books/item/f00/s00/z0000022/index.shtml].

2 .2 Formation of the principles of classicism

The principles of classicism, the ground for which was prepared by the architects of the French and Italian Renaissance, were not yet distinguished by their integrity and homogeneity in the first half of the 17th century. They were often mixed with the traditions of the Italian Baroque, whose buildings were characterized by a complicated form of triangular and curvilinear pediments, an abundance of sculptural decoration and cartouches, especially in interior decoration.

Medieval traditions were so strong that even classical orders acquired a unique interpretation in the buildings of the first half of the century. The composition of the order - its location on the surface of the wall, proportions and details - is subject to the structure of the wall that has developed in Gothic architecture, with its clearly defined vertical elements of the supporting frame of the building (piers) and large window openings located between them. This motif, combined with the division of the facades using corner and central projections, gives the building a vertical aspiration that is not characteristic of the classical system of order compositions and the clear, calm silhouette of the volume.

Baroque techniques are combined with the traditions of French Gothic and new classicist principles of understanding beauty. Many places of worship, built according to the type of basilica church established in the Italian Baroque, received magnificent main facades, decorated with orders of columns and pilasters, with numerous braces, sculptural inserts and volutes. An example is the Sorbonne Church - the first religious building in Paris, topped with a dome [Bykov, Kaptereva 1969: http://artyx.ru/books/item/f00/z0000022/index.shtml].

2 .3 Luxembourg Palace

One of the earliest palace buildings was the Luxembourg Palace (1615-1620), built by Solomon de Brosse for Marie de Medici. A magnificent park was laid out near the palace, which was considered one of the best at the beginning of the 17th century.

The composition of the palace is characterized by the placement of the main and lower service wings around the large ceremonial palace. One side of the main building faces the front courtyard, the other faces the park. The volumetric composition of the palace clearly revealed the characteristics of the first French palace architecture. half XVII century, traditional features, for example, the allocation of corner and central volumes in the main three-story building of the palace, topped with high roofs, as well as the division of the internal space of the corner towers into completely identical residential sections.

The appearance of the palace, in some features of which still remains similar to the castles of the previous century, thanks to the natural and clear compositional structure, as well as the clear rhythmic structure of the two-tier orders dividing the facades, is distinguished by its monumentality and representativeness.

The massiveness of the walls is emphasized by horizontal rustication, completely covering the walls and order elements. This technique, borrowed from the masters of the Italian Baroque, in the work of de Brosse received a unique sound, giving the appearance of the palace a special richness and splendor [see. Appendix Fig. 3].

Among de Brosse's other works, the Church of Saint-Gervais (begun in 1616) in Paris occupies a prominent place. In this church, built according to the plan of Italian Baroque churches, traditional elements Baroque church facades are combined with Gothic elongation of proportions [Bykov, Kaptereva 1969: http://artyx.ru/books/item/f00/z0000022/index.shtml].

2 .4 City of Richelieu

Early examples of large ensemble compositions date back to the first half of the 17th century. The creator of the first ensemble of the palace, park and city of Richelieu in the architecture of French classicism (begun in 1627) was Jacques Lemercier.

The layout of the now defunct ensemble was based on the intersection of two compositional axes at an angle. One of them coincides with the main street of the city and the park alley connecting the city with the square in front of the palace, the other is the main axis of the palace and the park. The layout of the park is based on a strictly regular system of alleys intersecting at right angles or diverging from one center.

Situated to the side of the city palace, Richelieu was surrounded by a wall and a moat, forming a rectangle in plan. The layout of the streets and blocks of the city is subject to the same strict system of rectangular coordinates as the ensemble as a whole, which indicates the formation of new urban planning principles in the first half of the 17th century and the overcoming of medieval methods of city development with crooked narrow streets and small cramped squares.

The building of the Richelieu Palace was divided into the main building and wings, which formed in front of it a large closed rectangular courtyard with a main entrance. The main building with outbuildings, according to a tradition dating back to medieval castles, was surrounded by a moat filled with water. The layout and volumetric composition of the main building and wings with clearly defined corner tower-like volumes, completed with high pyramidal roofs, were close to the Luxembourg Palace discussed above, which indicates the influence of the Middle Ages.

The Richelieu Palace, like its regular park with deep vistas of alleys, extensive parterres and sculpture, was created as a majestic monument designed to glorify the all-powerful ruler of France. The interiors of the palace were richly decorated with stucco and paintings, in which the personality of Richelieu and his deeds were exalted [see. Appendix Fig. 4].

The ensemble of the palace and the city of Richelieu was not yet sufficiently imbued with unity, but on the whole Lemercier managed to create a new type of complex and strict spatial composition, unknown to the architecture of the Italian Renaissance and Baroque [Bykov, Kaptereva 1969: http://artyx.ru/books/item/f00 /s00/z0000022/index.shtml].

2 .5 Creations of François Mansart

Along with Lemercier, the largest architect of the first half of the century was François Mansart (1598-1666). Among his outstanding works is the Maisons-Laffite Palace (1642-1650), erected near Paris for the President of the Parisian Parliament, René de Langeuil. Unlike the traditional compositions of earlier country castles, there is no enclosed courtyard formed by the main building and service wings. All office premises are located in the basement of the building.

The monumental volume of the palace, crowned according to ancient tradition with high pyramidal roofs over the side and central projections, is distinguished by its compact integrity and expressive silhouette. The building is surrounded by a moat filled with water, and its location, as if on an island in a beautiful water frame, well connects the palace with the natural park environment, emphasizing its primacy in the composition of the ensemble. The architecture of the Maisons-Laffite Palace is complemented by a regular French park with an extensive parterre, bosquets and dense green spaces [see. Appendix Fig. 5].

Another major work of François Mansart is the church of the convent of Val de Grace (1645-1665), built after his death. The composition of the plan is based on the traditional scheme of a domed basilica with a wide central nave covered by a barrel vault, a transept and a dome on the middle cross. As in many other French religious buildings of the 17th century, the facade of the building goes back to the traditional solution of the church facade with Italian Baroque architecture. The dome of the church, raised on a high drum, is one of the three tallest domes in Paris [see. Appendix Fig. 6].

In 1630, François Mansart introduced into the practice of building urban housing a high, broken roof shape using an attic for housing (hence the concept of “attic”).

Thus, in the first half of the 17th century, both in the field of urban planning and in the formation of the types of buildings themselves, the process of maturation of a new style was underway, and conditions were created for its flourishing in the second half of the century [Bykov, Kaptereva 1969: http://artyx.ru /books/item/f00/s00/z0000022/index.shtml].

3. Second half of the 17th century

3 .1 The Great Century, characteristics of the period

In the second half of the 17th century, the absolute monarchy in France reached its greatest economic and political power and external prosperity. This is the time of the long reign of Louis XIV, the “Sun King”. It is not for nothing that this time was called in Western literature “Le grand siècle” - “The Great Age”. Great - first of all in the pomp of ceremony and all types of arts, in different genres and in various ways glorifying the person of the king. From the beginning of the independent reign of Louis XIV, i.e. Since the 60s of the 17th century, a very important process of regulation, complete subordination and control by the royal authority has been taking place in art. Created back in 1648, the Academy of Painting and Sculpture is now under the official jurisdiction of the king's first minister. In 1671, the Academy of Architecture was founded, control over all types of artistic life[Ilyina 2000: 138] .

Despite government control, the second half of the 17th century for French architecture was its heyday. In Paris, vast city squares and large palace, public and religious buildings are being reconstructed and rebuilt. Grandiose, expensive construction work is being carried out to create the king's country residence - Versailles.

One of the reasons for the leading position of architecture among other arts in the second half of the 17th century was rooted in its specific features. It was architecture that could most fully and forcefully express the ideas of this stage in the development of a centralized national monarchy. During this period, the organizing role of architecture in the artistic synthesis of all types was especially clearly manifested. visual arts. Architecture had a huge impact on the formation of decorative sculpture, painting and applied arts this time.

New artistic features in the architecture of the mid and second half of the 17th century, which developed within the framework of classicism, are manifested, first of all, in the enormous spatial scope of buildings and ensembles, in the more consistent application of the classical order system, in the predominance of horizontal divisions over vertical ones, in greater integrity and unity of volumetric composition and internal space of the building. Along with the classical heritage of antiquity and the Renaissance, the creation of the style of French classicism in the second half of the 17th century was greatly influenced by Italian Baroque architecture. This was reflected in the borrowing of certain architectural forms (curved pediments, volutes, magnificent cartouches), in the order compositions of facades and the principles of designing their internal space (enfilade), in some features of the layout of large ensembles (longitudinal-axial construction), as well as in the inherent architecture French classicism with increased pomp of architectural forms, especially in interiors. However, the forms of classical and baroque architecture underwent a radical reworking in the 17th century in connection with national artistic traditions, which made it possible to bring these often contradictory elements to artistic unity [Bykov 1963: 487-513].

3 .2 Vaux-le-Vicomte

The first work of architecture of French classicism of the second half of the 17th century, in which the predominance of the artistic principles of classicism over old traditions is clearly felt, was the ensemble of the palace and park of Vaux-le-Vicomte (1655-1661). The creators of this remarkable work, built for the controller general of finance Fouquet and in many ways anticipating the ensemble of Versailles, were the architect Louis Leveau, Andre Le Nôtre and the painter Charles Lebrun.

In terms of the composition of the plan, the allocation of central and corner tower-like volumes topped with high roofs, and the general open nature of the building surrounded by a moat filled with water, the Vaux-le-Vicomte Palace resembles the Maisons-Laffite Palace. As at Maisons-Laffite, the architecture of this palace still retains some traditional features of French architecture dating back to past centuries. Nevertheless, in the appearance of the building, as well as in the compositional ensemble as a whole, there is undoubtedly a triumph of classicist architectural principles. This is manifested, first of all, in the logical and strictly verified planning solution of the palace and park. The building and the park are subject to a strictly centralizing compositional principle, which makes it possible to bring the various elements of the Vaux-le-Vicomte ensemble to great artistic unity and highlight the palace as the most important component of the ensemble.

Unity in the construction of the internal space and volume of the building is typical of the principles of classicist architecture. The large oval salon is highlighted as the center of the composition and is topped with a domed roof, giving its silhouette a calm, balanced character. The introduction of a large order of pilasters spanning two floors above the base, and the powerful horizontal of a smooth, strictly profiled classical entablature, achieves the predominance of horizontal divisions over vertical ones, the generality and integrity of the facades and volume of the building, unusual for palaces of an earlier period. All this gives the appearance of the palace a monumental presence and splendor.

The park ensemble of the Vaux-le-Vicomte Palace was built according to a single strictly regular system. Skillfully trimmed green spaces, alleys, flower beds, paths form clear, easily perceived geometric figures and lines. Fountains and decorative statues frame the vast parterre and pool with a grotto, spread out in front of the palace facade [see. Appendix Fig. 7].

In the Vaux-le-Vicomte ensemble, the original principles of the synthesis of architecture, sculpture, painting and landscape art created by French classicism of the 17th century were formed, which received even greater scope and maturity in the Versailles ensemble [Bykov 1963: 487-513].

3 .3 East façade of the Louvre

One of the first works of the second half of the 17th century, in which the fundamental principles of French classicism received the most complete expression, is the eastern facade of the Louvre (1667-1678), in the design and construction of which Francois d'Orbe (1634-1697), Louis Levo and Claude participated Perrault (1613-1688).

The eastern facade of the Louvre, which is often called the Colonnade of the Louvre, forms part of the ensemble of two palaces united in the 17th century - the Tuileries and the Louvre. The long façade (173 m) has a central and two side projections, between which, on a monumental smooth plinth with rare openings, rest powerful (12 m high) twin columns of the Corinthian order, forming, together with the wall receding inward, deep shaded loggias. The richest in its forms, decoration and divisions is the design of the central entrance with a three-bay portico and topped with a triangular pediment. The tympanum of the pediment is richly decorated with sculptural relief. The flat architectural relief of the side projections creates a logical transition to the side facades of the Louvre, which repeated the composition of the eastern facade, with the difference that the double Corinthian columns were replaced by single pilasters of the same order [Bykov 1963: 487-513].

The monumental façade of the building, with its enlarged forms and emphasized scale, is full of grandeur and nobility, but at the same time there is a shade of rational coldness characteristic of mature classicism [Bykov 1963: 487-513].

3 .4 Creations of Hardouin-Mansart

The problem of the architectural ensemble, which was at the center of attention of the masters of classicism of the 17th century for almost the entire century, found its expression in French urban planning. One of the striking examples of the skillful solution of large urban planning tasks is the construction by Hardouin-Mansart of the Church of the Invalides (1693-1706), completing a huge complex built according to the design of Liberal Bruant (c. 1635-1697).

The Invalides' House, intended to house hostels for war veterans, was conceived as one of the most grandiose public buildings of the 17th century. In front of the main façade of the building, located on the left bank of the Seine, stretches a vast area, the so-called Esplanade des Invalides. The strictly symmetrical complex of the House of Invalids consists of four-story buildings closed along the perimeter, forming a developed system of large rectangular and square courtyards, subordinate to a single compositional center - a large courtyard and a monumental church associated with it.

The church is a centric structure with a square plan and a large, 27 m diameter dome that crowns a vast central space. In the strict and restrained architecture of the temple, one can still feel the influence of baroque compositions, which are not alien to the work of Hardouin-Mansart. This is reflected in the weighted proportions of the dome in relation to the lower volume and in the plastic enrichment of the central part of the façade with order elements, characteristic of the Baroque [see. Appendix Fig. 8].

For French urban planning practice of the 17th century great importance have the Place Louis the Great (later Place Vendôme) (1685-1701) and the Place des Victories (1684-1687), built according to the designs of the architect Hardouin-Mansart.

Having a rectangular plan with cut corners, Place Louis the Great was conceived as a ceremonial building in honor of the king. In accordance with the plan, the dominant role in the composition was played by the equestrian statue of Louis XIV located in the center of the square. The facades of the buildings forming the square, of the same type in composition, with slightly protruding porticoes on the cut corners and in the central part of the buildings, serve as an architectural frame for the space of the square. Connected to the adjacent neighborhoods by only two short stretches of streets, the square is perceived as a closed, isolated space [see Appendix Fig. 9].

Another ensemble is the Place des Victories, which has the shape of a circle with a diameter of 60 m in plan; in terms of the uniformity of the facades surrounding the square and the location of the monument in the center, it is close to Place Louis the Great. However, placing the square at the intersection of several streets, actively connected with the general planning system of the city, deprives it of isolation and isolation.

With the creation of Victory Square, Hardouin-Mansart laid the foundations for progressive urban planning trends in the construction of open public centers closely connected with the city planning system [Bykov 1963: 487-513].

3 .5 Versailles

Progressive trends in the architecture of French classicism of the 17th century received full and comprehensive development in the ensemble of Versailles (1668-1689), grandiose in scale, boldness and breadth of artistic concept. The main creators of this most significant monument of French classicism of the 17th century were Hardouin-Mansart and the master of landscape art Andre Le Nôtre (1613-1700).

Versailles, as the main residence of the king, was supposed to exalt and glorify the boundless power of French absolutism. The peculiarities of constructing a complex ensemble as a strictly ordered centralized system, based on the absolute compositional dominance of the palace over everything around it, are determined by its general ideological concept.

Three wide, completely straight radial avenues of the city converge on the Palace of Versailles, located on a terrace rising above the surrounding area - thus, Versailles was connected by roads approaching it with different regions of France.

Adjacent to the main building on the city side, palace services were located in two large independent buildings, forming a large rectangular area in front of the central building of the palace.

Luxurious interior decoration, in which Baroque motifs are widely used (round and oval medallions, complex cartouches, ornamental fillings above the doors and in the walls) and expensive finishing materials (mirrors, chased bronze, marble, gilded wood carvings), widespread use of decorative painting - all this is designed to create an impression of grandeur and pomp. One of the most remarkable rooms of the Palace of Versailles is the magnificent Mirror Gallery (73 m long) built by Hardouin-Mansart and located on the second floor of the central part with adjacent square living rooms. Through the wide arched openings there is a magnificent view of the main alley of the park and the surrounding landscape. The interior space of the gallery is illusively expanded by a number of large mirrors located in niches opposite the windows. The interior of the gallery is richly decorated with marble Corinthian pilasters and a lush stucco cornice, which serves as a transition to the Baroque ceiling by the artist Lebrun, which is even more complex in composition and color scheme [see. Appendix Fig. 10].

The architecture of the facades created by Hardouin-Mansart, especially on the park side, is distinguished by great unity. Strongly stretched horizontally, the palace building harmonizes well with the strict geometrically correct layout of the park and the natural environment. The composition of the façade clearly highlights the second, front floor of the palace, dissected by a strict order of proportions and details of columns and pilasters resting on a heavy rusticated base.

In contrast to the architecture of the palace facades, which are somewhat baroque in their representativeness, as well as the interiors, which are overloaded with decorations and gilding, the layout of the park, made by Le Nôtre, is distinguished by classical purity and clarity of lines and shapes. In the layout of the park and the forms of its “green architecture,” Le Nôtre was the most consistent exponent of the aesthetic and ethical ideal of classicism. He saw the natural environment as an object of intelligent human activity. Le Nôtre transforms the natural landscape into an impeccably clear, complete architectural system based on the principles of rationality and order [see. Appendix Fig. eleven].

General form It opens onto the park from the side of the palace. From the main terrace, a wide staircase leads along the main axis of the ensemble composition to the Latona Fountain, then the Royal Alley, bordered by trimmed trees, leads to the Apollo Fountain. The composition ends with a large canal stretching towards the horizon, framed by alleys of trimmed trees.

In organic unity with the layout of the park and the architectural appearance of the palace is the rich and varied sculptural decoration of the park. The park sculpture of Versailles actively participates in the formation of the ensemble. The architectural image of the Versailles ensemble is built in an organic connection with the natural environment, in the natural and consistent disclosure of various internal and external perspective aspects, in the synthesis of architecture, sculpture and painting [Bykov 1963: 487-513].

Conclusion

The 17th century is one of the brightest eras in the development of Western European artistic culture. This is a time of brilliant flowering of a number of the largest national schools, many creative directions and a constellation of great names and illustrious masters that is truly extraordinary for one century. The most significant and valuable that was created during this era is associated primarily with the art of five European countries - Italy, Spain, Flanders, Holland and France.

The difference between the 17th century and the previous 16th century was that none of the named countries now unconditionally occupied dominant position in the general evolution of artistic culture. However, one cannot fail to note the special role of the two countries in the initial and final stages of this stage. So, speaking about its initial phase, first of all we have to name Italy. The country of ancient ancient culture, the cradle of the Renaissance, Italy became in the 17th century a place of pilgrimage for all artists of the world. Even more important, in Italian art of the first half of the 17th century, new figurative and stylistic foundations of architecture, sculpture and painting were laid, which met the requirements of their time and therefore received a pan-European response. One has only to remember how much the Italian Baroque contributed to all types of plastic arts, how much it enriched European painting realism of Caravaggio.

What Italy was for the first half of the 17th century, France became for the second half of the century, providing models for other European countries in its artistic achievements. Her art has traveled a long and complex path since the turn of the 16th and 17th centuries, marked by the creative activity of many famous masters.

In no other European country art culture did not find itself in such close connection with the development of absolutism as in France. To a large extent, this was due to the fact that France was a classic country of absolutism, the historical role of which at a certain stage of social development was largely progressive. Under these conditions, the idea of ​​state unity, which met the requirements of the growing and independent French nation, acquired especially important meaning.

The essential features of the era were most deeply reflected in the art of classicism. This complex and contradictory style manifested itself in different ways in drama and poetry, in architecture and the fine arts [Bykov, Kaptereva 1969: http://artyx.ru/books/item/f00/z00022/index.shtml].

Bibliography

Literature

1. Bykov V.E. Art of France, architecture // General history of arts in 6 volumes / rep. ed. R.B. Klimov, I.I. Nikonova. Volume 4: Art of the 17th - 18th centuries. - M.: Art, 1963. 1101 p.

2. Bykov V.E., Kaptereva T.P. Art of France of the 17th century. - M.: Art, 1969 URL: http://artyx.ru/books/item/f00/s00/z0000022/index.shtml

3. Gombrich E. History of Art. - M.: ACT Publishing House, 1998. 688 p.

4. Dassa F. Baroque. Architecture between 1600 and 1750. - M.: Astrel Publishing House, 2002. 160 p.

5. Ilyina T.V. History of art. Western European art. - M.: Higher. school, 2000. 368 p.

6. Koch F. Encyclopedia of architectural styles. - M.: BMM AO, 2005. 528 p.

Dictionaries and reference books

7. Le Petit Robert des noms propres, Varese, La tipografica Varese, 2010.

Internet resources

8. National Historical Encyclopedia. http://interpretive.ru/

Illustrations

9. Illustrations 1-2: Architecture and urban planning URL: http://townevolution.ru/books/item/f00/z0021/st030.shtml

10. Illustrations 3-8, 11: General history of art in 6 volumes / rep. ed. R.B. Klimov, I.I. Nikonova. Volume 4: Art of the 17th - 18th centuries. - M.: Art, 1963. 1101 p.

11. Illustrations 9-10 URL: http://www.mafrance.ru/wp-content/uploads/2010/04/vandomskaya-ploshad.jpg

Application

Rice. 1 Plans of French fortified cities of the 17th century. Henrishmont

Rice. 2 City of Richelieu. Built according to the design of Jacques Lemercier in the early 30s of the 17th century. On the left is the park of the country castle of Cardinal Richelieu

Rice. 3 Salomon de Bros. Luxembourg Palace in Paris. 161 5 - 1620 (21)

Rice. 4 Jacques Lemercier. Palace of Richelieu in Poitou. Started in 1627. Engraving by Perel

Rice. 5 Francois Mansart. Palace of Maisons-Laffite near Paris. 1642-1650. Main facade

Rice. 6 Francois Mansart. Church of Val de Grace in Paris. 1645-1665. Facade

Rice. 7 Louis Leveau, Andre Le Nôtre. Palace and park of Vaux-le-Vicomte near Melun. 1655-1661 General view from the park.

Rice. 8 Jules Hardouin-Mansart. Church of the Invalides in Paris. 1693-1706 Completed in 1708 by Robert de Cotte. View from the south

Rice. 9 Place Louis the Great (Place Vendôme)

Rice. 10 Mirror Gallery of the Palace of Versailles

Rice. 11 Versailles. View of the Royal Palace and park from the west. Architects Louis Levo, Jules Hardouin-Mansart, Andre Le Nôtre. Aerial photography

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Formation in the Romanesque era architectural style with the motif of a semicircular arch, basilica type of temple, massive walls and towers with a hipped roof. Connection between German and Carolingian architecture. Romanesque and Gothic features of the transitional style.

In parallel with the Baroque style, the classicism style was emerging in France. Classicism architecture in many cases faced the same tasks as Baroque architecture - glorifying the power of the absolute monarch, exalting the ruling class. But the architects of classicism use other means for this. The 17th century represents the first stage of classicism, when the features of this style did not reach their most rigorous and pure expression. The public and palace buildings, city ensembles, and palace and park complexes erected by French architects are imbued with the spirit of solemn pomp; their spatial design is distinguished by clear logic, the facades are characterized by calm harmony compositional construction and proportionality of parts, architectural forms - simplicity and severity.

Strict orderliness is even introduced into nature - the masters of classicism created a system of the so-called regular park. Architects of classicism widely turn to the ancient heritage, studying the general principles of ancient architecture, and above all the system of orders, borrowing and reworking individual motifs and forms. It is no coincidence that religious buildings in the architecture of classicism do not have the enormous importance that they occupy in baroque architecture: the spirit of rationalism inherent in classicist art was not conducive to the expression of religious and mystical ideas. Perhaps, to an even greater extent than in Baroque architecture, the figurative content of the best monuments of classical architecture turns out to be broader than their representative functions: the buildings of Hardouin-Mansart and the park complexes of Le Nôtre glorify not only the power of the king, but also the greatness of the human mind.

In the second half of the 17th century. the absolute monarchy in France reaches its greatest economic and political power. Life at court becomes an endless holiday. At the center of this life is the personality of the Sun King Louis XIV. His awakening from sleep, morning toilet, lunch, etc. - everything was subject to a certain ritual and took place in the form of solemn ceremonies.
It was during this period that French architecture flourished. In the capital of France, Paris, vast city squares and large palace, public and religious buildings are being reconstructed and rebuilt. Grandiose, expensive construction work is being carried out to create the king's country residence - Versailles.
Only under the conditions of a powerful centralized monarchy was it possible at that time to create huge city and palace ensembles designed according to a single plan, designed to embody the idea of ​​the power of an absolute monarch. The desire to search for a strict and monumental image, compositional integrity and stylistic unity of building structures is more clearly manifested. The architecture of this period had a huge impact on the formation of decorative sculpture, painting and applied art.
In addition to the enormous spatial scope of buildings and ensembles, new artistic features in the architecture of the mid and second half of the 17th century were manifested in a more consistent use of the classical order system, in the predominance of horizontal divisions over vertical ones, in greater integrity and unity of the volumetric composition and the internal space of the building. Along with the classical heritage of antiquity and the Renaissance, the creation of the style of French classicism of the second half of the 17th century. was greatly influenced by Italian Baroque architecture. This was reflected in the borrowing of certain architectural forms (curved pediments, volutes, magnificent cartouches), in the order compositions of facades and the principles of designing their internal space (enfilade), in some features of the layout of large ensembles (longitudinal-axial construction), as well as in the inherent architecture French classicism with increased pomp of architectural forms, especially in interiors. However, forms of classical and baroque architecture were exposed in the 17th century. radical processing in connection with national artistic traditions, which made it possible to bring these often contradictory elements to artistic unity.

Since the 70s. 18th century we can talk about a new stage, when classicism is gradually becoming the leading direction not only in architecture, where it was defined earlier, but also in painting and sculpture. The art of this period embodied the “thirst for energetic action” that had seized the French.

Classicism of the first half of the 17th century. Formation of style.

Urban planning work is being widely deployed throughout the country. Old medieval cities are being rebuilt on the basis of new principles of regular planning. Straight highways are being laid, urban ensembles and geometrically correct squares are being built on the site of a chaotic network of medieval streets. The main problem becomes a large urban ensemble with development carried out according to a single plan. In the development of Paris and other French cities, the role of churches and monastery complexes is significant. Baroque techniques are combined with the traditions of French Gothic and new classicist principles of understanding beauty. Many religious buildings, built according to the basilica church type established in the Italian Baroque, received magnificent main facades, decorated with orders of columns and pilasters, with numerous braces, sculptural inserts and volutes.

Palais Royal Palace(royal palace) - the residence of Cardinal Richelieu was built in 1629. This is at the same time a majestic palace, an open square, and a beautiful well-kept park. The author of the project was the famous French architect of that time, Jacques Lemercier. The palace served as the last refuge of the powerful cardinal; he lived here until his death in 1642. After the death of Richelieu, the palace was occupied by the widowed Anna of Austria with the young Louis XIV, who later became the Sun King. Then Cardinal Mazarin settled here. Then the palace ensemble became the property of the Duke of Orleans, the younger brother of King Louis XIII. At the end of the 18th century, significant changes were made to the architecture of the Palais Royal - slender columns, covered galleries, small shops and cozy cafes appeared here, and a beautiful garden with rare plants was open to the general public.

The palace, built for Cardinal Richelieu, burned down in 1871, and in its place there is a restored reconstruction, the architectural ensemble of which exactly replicates the ancient buildings.

Palais Royal Palace

Palace of Richelieu in Poitou

Early examples of large ensemble compositions date back to the first half of the 17th century. The creator of the first ensemble of the palace, park and city of Richelieu in the architecture of French classicism was Jacques Lemercier (c. 1585 - 1654). In terms of the ensemble there are two compositional axes. One axis coincides with the main street of the city and the park alley connecting the city with the square in front of the palace, the other is the main axis of the palace and the park. The layout of the park is built on a strictly regular system of alleys intersecting at right angles and diverging from one center. Located away from the palace, the city of Richelieu was surrounded by a wall and a moat, forming a rectangle in plan. The layout of the streets and blocks of the city is subject to the same strict system of rectangular coordinates as the ensemble as a whole. The building of the Richelieu Palace was divided into the main building and wings, which formed in front of it a large closed rectangular courtyard with a main entrance. The main building with outbuildings, according to a tradition dating back to medieval castles, was surrounded by a moat filled with water. The composition of the main building and wings features corner tower-like volumes topped with high pyramidal roofs.

Jacques Lemercier. Palace of Richelieu in Poitou. Started in 1627 Engraving by Perel

The Richelieu Palace, like its regular park with deep vistas of alleys, extensive parterres and sculpture, was created as a majestic monument designed to glorify the all-powerful ruler of France. The interiors of the palace were richly decorated with stucco and paintings, which exalted the personality of Richelieu and his deeds.

Classicism of the second half of the 17th century.

The second half of the 17th century was the time of the highest flowering of the architecture of French classicism. The organization of the Academy of Architecture, whose director was the prominent architect and theorist Francois Blondel (1617 - 1686), had a great influence on the development of architecture. In 1664, the architect L. Levo completed the quadrangular composition of the Louvre with a closed courtyard with the construction of its northern, southern and eastern buildings. The eastern façade of the Louvre, created by C. Perrault, F. d'Orbe and L. Levo, gives the final appearance to this remarkable ensemble.

Ensemble of the palace and park of Vaux-le-Vicomte (1655 - 1661).
The first work of architecture of French classicism of the second half of the 17th century, in which the predominance of the artistic principles of classicism over old traditions is clearly felt, was the ensemble of the palace and park of Vaux-le-Vicomte (1655 - 1661).

The creators of this remarkable work, built for the controller general of finance Fouquet and in many ways anticipating the ensemble of Versailles, were the architect Louis Levo (c. 1612-1670), the master of landscape art Andre Le Nôtre, who laid out the park of the palace, and the painter Charles Lebrun, who took part in decoration of palace interiors and painting of lampshades.

The Vaux-le-Vicomte ensemble developed unique principles created by French classicism of the 17th century. a synthesis of architecture, sculpture, painting and landscape art, which received even greater scope and maturity in the ensemble of Versailles.

The composition of the palace is characterized by the unity of the internal space and volume of the building, which distinguishes works of mature classicist architecture. The large oval salon is highlighted in the volume of the building by a curvilinear risalit, topped with a powerful domed roof, creating a static and calm silhouette of the building. By introducing a large order of pilasters spanning two floors above the base, and a powerful horizontal of a smooth, strict profile classical entablature, the predominance of horizontal divisions over vertical ones in the facades is achieved. This gives the appearance of the palace a monumental presence and splendor.

The formation of classicism in French architecture is associated with the buildings of F. Mansart, marked by clarity of composition and order divisions. High examples of mature classicism in the architecture of the 17th century - the eastern facade of the Louvre (C. Perrault), the work of L. Levo, F. Blondel. From the 2nd half. 17th century French classicism incorporates some elements of Baroque architecture (the palace and park of Versailles - architect J. Hardouin-Mansart, A. Le Nôtre).

Versailles. Architects Louis Levo, Jules Hardouin-Mansart, Andre Le Nôtre.

The pinnacle of the development of a new direction in architecture was Versailles - the grandiose ceremonial residence of the French kings near Paris. First, a royal hunting castle appeared there (1624). The main construction began during the reign of Louis XIV in the late 60s. The most prominent architects participated in the creation of the project: Louis Levo (circa 1612-1670), Jules Hardouin-Mansart (1613-1708) and the outstanding decorator of gardens and parks Andre Le Nôtre (1613-1700). According to their plan, the Grand Palace - the main part of the complex - was to be located on an artificial terrace where the three main avenues of Versailles converge. One of them - the middle one - leads to Paris, and the two side ones - to the country palaces of Seau and Saint-Cloud.

Jules Hardouin-Mansart, having started work in 1678, designed all the buildings in the same style. The facades of the buildings were divided into three tiers. The lower one, modeled on an Italian Renaissance palazzo, is decorated with rustication, the middle one - the largest - is filled with high arched windows, between which there are columns and pilasters. The upper tier is shortened and ends with a balustrade (a fence consisting of a number of figured columns connected by railings) and sculptural groups that create a feeling of lush decoration, although all facades have a strict appearance. The interiors of the palace differ from the facades in the luxury of decoration.

The first Trianon Palace, called the "Porcelain Trianon", was built in 1672 and lasted 15 years. In the eyes of Europeans, the building was given a Chinese-style flavor by facing the walls with faience tiles, faience vases and decorative elements of a high mansard roof made of gilded lead. Due to bad weather, the faience very quickly lost its appearance and the king soon ceased to like the palace; he ordered to destroy it and build a new building on this site, more spacious and in a completely different style. On the site of the destroyed Porcelain Trianon, a new one was erected - Marble Trianon, with pilasters made of pink and green marble, which gave the building its name. Construction was entrusted to the first royal architect, Jules Hardouin Mansart.

Of great importance in the palace ensemble is the park designed by Andre Le Nôtre. He abandoned artificial waterfalls and cascades in the Baroque style, which symbolized the spontaneous beginning in nature. Lenotre pools have a clear geometric shape, with a mirror-smooth surface. Each major alley ends with a reservoir: the main staircase from the terrace of the Grand Palace leads to the Latona fountain; At the end of the Royal Avenue there is the Apollo Fountain and the canal. The park is oriented along the “west - east” axis, so when the sun rises and its rays are reflected in the water, an amazingly beautiful and picturesque play of light appears. The layout of the park is connected with architecture - the alleys are perceived as a continuation of the halls of the palace.

The main idea of ​​the park is to create a special world where everything is subject to strict laws. It is no coincidence that many consider Versailles a brilliant expression of French national character, in which, behind external lightness and impeccable taste, cold reason, will and determination are hidden.
Louis XIV wanted Versailles to be one of the greatest palaces in Europe. He ordered the castle to be equipped with lush gardens, fountains where one could indulge in reflection, halls with stucco, precious fabrics and expensive gold paintings. The renovated Palace of Versailles appeared to the discerning king in its full glory in 1684, becoming an architectural ideal for the rulers of many countries of that era. To this day, the palace has not lost its charm. Perfectly manicured gardens, fountains with graceful water jets and lighting, as well as well-preserved structural elements of buildings - all this recreates the spirit of the era of the Sun King.