At primary school age, the leading role becomes doctrine.

Educational activities- this is an activity directly aimed at assimilation of knowledge and skills developed by humanity.

Science subjects- these are special objects that you need to learn to operate with.

Educational activity is not given to a person from birth; it must be formulated. Therefore the task primary school is to teach the child to learn.

In order for educational activities to be successful, positive motivation is necessary, that is, for the child to really want to learn. But the motive and content of educational activity do not correspond to each other, and over time the motive loses its power. Therefore, one of the main tasks of successful educational activities is the formation cognitive motivation, which is closely related to the content and methods of teaching.

A child entering school does not know how to study and does not master educational activities. In the first days of school, the teacher is the main leader. He sets goals for children, shows how to complete a task, monitors and evaluates the child’s work.

Educational activities - leading the activities of a primary school student. Leading activity in Soviet child psychology is understood as such activity, during which the formation of basic mental processes and personality properties occurs, and the main new formations of age appear (voluntariness, reflection, self-control, internal plan of action). Educational activities are carried out throughout the child’s education at school. But “this or that activity,” according to D. B. Elkonin, “performs its leading function most fully during the period when it takes shape and is being formed. Primary school age is the period of the most intensive formation of educational activity.”

Educational activities - This is a special type of activity, different” from, for example, labor. By changing the material, working with it, a person creates a new product in the process of work. The essence of labor activity lies precisely in the creation of the Product. The essence of educational activity is the appropriation of scientific knowledge. A child, under the guidance of a teacher, begins to operate scientific concepts.

The purpose of teaching in Soviet psychology is considered not only in terms of acquiring knowledge, but mainly in terms of enriching, “rebuilding” the child’s personality. According to D. B. Elkonin, “the result of educational activities, during which the assimilation of scientific concepts occurs, is, first of all, a change in the student himself, his development. In general terms, we can say that this change is the child’s acquisition of new abilities, that is, new ways of acting with scientific concepts. Thus, educational activity is, first of all, an activity that results in changes in the student himself. This is an activity of self-change; its product is the changes that occurred during its implementation in the subject himself.” These changes are:

Changes in the level of knowledge, skills, abilities, training;

Changes in the level of development of certain aspects of educational activity;

Changes in mental operations, personality characteristics, i.e. in the level of general and mental development.

Educational activities - it is a specific form of individuality and activity. It is complex in its structure and requires special formation. Like work, educational activities are characterized by goals and motives. Like an adult doing work, a student must know what to do, why to do it, how to do it, see his mistakes, control and evaluate himself. A child entering school does not do any of this on his own, that is, he does not have educational activity. In the process of learning activities, the junior schoolchild not only acquires knowledge, skills and abilities. but also learns to set educational tasks (goals), find ways to assimilate and apply knowledge, control and evaluate their actions.

Product, the result of learning activity is changes in the student himself. Educational activity is an activity of self-development, self-change (in the level of knowledge, abilities, skills, in the level of general and mental development).

Leading role educational activity is expressed in the fact that it mediates the entire system of relations between the child and society (it is social in meaning, content and form of organization), not only individual mental qualities, but also the personality of the younger student as a whole.

The structure of educational activities according to D.B. Elkonin:

- learning motivation - a system of incentives that forces a child to learn and gives meaning to learning activities.

- learning task , i.e. a system of tasks during which the child masters the most common methods of action;

- learning activities , those with the help of which the learning task is mastered, i.e. all the actions that the student does in class ( specific for each academic subject and are common);

- control actions - those actions with the help of which the progress of mastering the educational task is monitored;

- evaluation action - those actions with the help of which we evaluate the success of mastering a learning task.

Question No. 20.

Basic psychological neoplasms

Junior school age.

Neoplasms of primary school age include memory, perception, will, thinking.

During primary school age, great changes occur in cognitive sphere of the child . Memory acquires a pronounced cognitive character. Changes in the area memory are associated with the fact that the child, firstly, begins to realize a special mnemonic task. He separates this task from every other. Secondly, there is an intensive formation of memorization techniques. From the most primitive techniques (repetition, careful long-term examination of the material) at an older age, the child moves on to grouping and understanding connections different parts material.

In area perception There is a transition from the involuntary perception of a preschool child to purposeful voluntary observation of an object, subordinate to a specific task. In order for the student to more subtly analyze the qualities of objects, the teacher must carry out special work, teaching him to observe. To do this, it is necessary to create a preliminary search image in the child so that the child can see what is needed. If preschoolers were characterized by analyzing perception, then by the end of primary school age, with appropriate training, synthesizing perception appears.

At school, all activities are voluntary in nature, therefore they actively develop will and self-organization. The child begins to develop the ability to self-organize, he masters planning techniques, self-control and self-esteem increase.

The most significant changes can be observed in the area thinking, which acquires an abstract and generalized character. The transition from visual-figurative to verbal-logical thinking, which began in preschool age, is completed. There is a development of a new form of generalization based on the essential features of objects and phenomena - theoretical thinking. Thanks to the development of a new level of thinking, a restructuring of all other mental processes occurs, i.e., according to D. B. Elkonin, “memory becomes thinking, and perception becomes thinking.” Therefore, it is the restructuring of the entire cognitive sphere in connection with the development of theoretical thinking that constitutes the main content of mental development in primary school age.

By the end of primary school age, elements of labor, artistic, and socially useful activities are formed. Prerequisites for development are being created feelings of adulthood: the child thinks that he can do everything like an adult.

LEADING ACTIVITIES OF CHILDREN AT DIFFERENT AGE PERIODS

The main condition for the mental development of a child is his own active activity. A. N. Leontiev introduced the concept of leading activity into developmental psychology. He emphasized that “... the main process that characterizes the mental development of a child is the specific process of assimilation or appropriation of the achievements of previous generations of people. ... This process is carried out in the child’s activity in relation to objects and phenomena of the surrounding world, in which these human achievements are embodied.” It is in the active motivated activity of the child himself that his personality is formed. Moreover, this formation occurs first under the influence of that activity, which at this stage of ontogenesis is leading, causing the main changes in mental processes in psychological characteristics the child’s personality (communication, play, learning, work).

Leading activity is an activity whose development determines the most important changes in the mental processes and psychological characteristics of the child’s personality at certain stages of his development. When moving to a new level of development, the previous activity does not disappear, but its determining role in development is lost. Thus, play is the leading activity of a preschooler, but both schoolchildren and adults play. A sign of the transition from one age stage to another is precisely the change in the type of leading activity that leads the child’s relationship to reality.

For an infant, the leading activity is direct emotional contact with an adult, thanks to which he develops a need to communicate with other people (from the first weeks to a year).

IN early childhood– business practical cooperation with an adult. The child is busy with the object and actions with it. Intensive mastery of object-tool operations forms practical intelligence. Speech is used mainly to establish cooperation with adults within joint substantive activities. The need for speech arises as a means of business contacts with adults (from one to three years).

In preschool age, the leading activity is play. IN play activity For the first time, the child’s need to influence the world is formed and appears. A. M. Gorky wrote: “Game is the way for children to understand the world in which they live and which they are called upon to change.” All games usually reproduce certain types of practical non-game activities and thereby meet the child’s need to take part in the life and activities of adults. But a child becomes an adult only in the imagination, mentally. Various forms of serious adult activity serve as models that are reproduced in play activities: focusing on an adult as a model, but only with substitute objects (toys) in a role-playing game. In play, what is important for a child is not only the properties of objects, but also the attitude towards the object, hence the possibility of replacing objects, which contributes to the development of imagination. While playing, the child also masters the corresponding actions. By the end of preschool age, play activities are differentiated into such forms as role-playing games and games with rules. The game develops not only cognitive processes, speech, communication, behavior, but also the child’s personality. Play in preschool age is a universal form of development; it creates a zone of proximal development and serves as the basis for the formation of future educational activities (from three to six).

Why is play the leading activity in preschool age? Are qualities being formed in it that will contribute to the child’s future success at school? Can a game become a “bridge” of continuity between preschool and primary general education?

The very concept of “leader” gives us a hint. Play is an activity that leads to the formation of new qualities of the child’s psyche and personality. It is very important to understand the peculiarity of preschool age: the center of a child’s mental work lies not in his intellect, but in his emotions, but this does not weaken the work of thinking, but gives it a different character. All cognitive activity of the child is directed by those goals that are put forward by the emotional sphere and the sphere of activity. This combination is optimally presented in the game.

The game is...

A GAME - leading activity. Leads to the development of new qualities of the psyche and personality of a preschooler	A GAME - the main form of organization of a child’s life. The game satisfies the child’s basic needs	A GAME - development potential. Functions of the game in the pedagogical process:
v imagination and fantasy v ability to symbolize and transform v arbitrariness of behavior v development of goal setting, ability to think in the mind v development of the “self”	v in cognition through a toy v in communication v in motion v in joy, pleasure v in the need to be like an adult v need for freedom, self-realization, independence, activity	v is a means of development v means of education v means of communication means of correction v a means of forming a positive “I-concept” (success in the game) v means of development (thinking, speech, imagination, creativity, fantasy, etc.)

Signs of leading activity:

1. New types of activities arise in it.

2. In this activity, individual mental functions are formed and restructured (creative imagination appears in the game).

3. The personality changes observed at this time depend on this activity.

Isolating the concept of “leading activity” is necessary to understand the essence of its impact on a person’s mental development. Consistent change of leading types of activity means that when moving to a new level of development, the previous activity does not disappear, but its determining role in development is lost. New types of activities are added to previously formed types of activities, and at the same time, an age-related qualitative restructuring of each type of activity occurs.

With age, some activities come to the fore, and other types of activities are relegated to the background, so that the hierarchy of leading activities changes.

Leading activity and formation of mental processes, personal formations.

Children's development occurs only under the condition of their own active activity, therefore learning and activity are inseparable. Children's development occurs simultaneously in many activities, i.e. This does not mean that only leading activities lead to development. If some activity is especially significant for a child, this will affect the development of his personality. but there will be no deep developmental effect from leading activities.

Age period	Leading activity	What is the purpose of cognitive activity?	Which area of ​​the psyche develops predominantly?	Neoplasms of age
Infancy 0-1 year	Direct emotional communication with adults (outside joint activities)	To understand relationships		Need for communication. Emotional Relationships
Early childhood 1-3 years	Object-manipulative activity (with a variety of toys and surrounding objects not in full accordance with their socio-cultural purpose and without active interaction with adults)	For knowledge of the subject	Cognitive processes	Speech and visual-effective thinking. The emergence of “I”, the emergence of self-awareness.
Preschool age 3-7 years	Role-playing game (a combination of gaming activities with communication, simulating a social situation and its characteristic forms of role-playing behavior)	To understand relationships	Personal (need-motivational)	The need for socially significant and socially valued activities. Subordination of motives.
Junior school age 7-10 years	Educational and cognitive activity (combination of educational activities and interpersonal communication)	To understand the principles of science	Intellectual-cognitive	arbitrariness. Internal plan of action. Self-control. Reflection.
Adolescence 11-15 years	Communication with peers in socially useful activities (personal communication and joint group activities based on interests)	To understand the system of relationships in different situations	Personal (need-motivational)	The desire for “adulthood”. self-esteem, submission to the norms of collective life.
Early adolescence 15-17 years old	Communication with adults in educational activities (preparation for professional activity, communication on intimate and personal topics)	For knowledge of professions	educational	Worldview, professional interests

At the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th century. the development of developmental psychology was closely connected with pedology, the science of children, created by the American psychologist S. Hall (1846-1924), a student of Wundt.
Studying the mental development of a child, Hall came to the conclusion that it is based on Haeckel’s biogenetic law. Hall argued that the ontogenetic development of the child’s psyche briefly repeats all stages of the phylogenetic development of the human psyche.
The theory of recapitulation created by Hall stated that the sequence and content of these stages are given genetically, therefore a child cannot evade or bypass any stage of its development.
Hall's student K. Hutchinson, based on the theory of recapitulation, created a periodization of mental development, the criterion of which was the method of obtaining food.

From birth to 5 years - the stage of digging and digging. At this stage, children love to play in the sand, make Easter cakes, and manipulate buckets and scoops;

From 5 to 11 years – the stage of hunting and capture. At this stage, children begin to be afraid of strangers, they develop aggressiveness, cruelty, a desire to isolate themselves from adults, especially strangers, and a desire to do many things in secret;

From 8 to 12 years – the shepherd stage. During this period, children strive to have their own corner, and they usually build their shelters in courtyards or in a field, in the forest, but not in the house. They also love pets and try to have them so that they have someone to care for and patronize. At this time, children, especially girls, develop a desire for affection and tenderness;

From 11 to 15 years - the agricultural stage, which is associated with an interest in the weather, natural phenomena, as well as with a love of gardening, and in girls, floriculture. At this time, children become observant and cautious;

From 14 to 20 years - the stage of industry and trade, or stage modern man. At this time, children begin to understand the role of money, as well as the importance of arithmetic and other exact sciences. In addition, the children have a desire to exchange different objects.

Hutchinson believed that from the age of 8, i.e. from the shepherd stage, the era of civilized man begins, and it is from this age that children can be systematically educated, which is impossible at the previous stages. At the same time, he proceeded from Hall’s idea that learning should be built upon a certain stage of mental development, since the maturation of the organism prepares the basis for learning.

Both Hall and Hutchinson were convinced that going through each stage is necessary for normal development, and fixation on any of them leads to the appearance of deviations and anomalies in the psyche. Based on the need for children to experience all stages of human mental development, Hall developed a mechanism that helps the transition from one stage to another. Since in reality a child cannot be transported to the same situations that humanity has experienced, the transition from one stage to another is carried out in a game, which is such a specific mechanism. This is how children's games of war, Cossack robbers, etc. appear. Hall emphasized that it is important not to constrain the child in the manifestation of his instincts, which are thus eliminated, including childhood fears.

Bibliography:

1. Obukhova, L.F. Child (age) psychology. Textbook. - M., Russian Pedagogical Agency. 1996

2. Martsynkovskaya T. History of child psychology.

3. Leontyev A.N. Problems of mental development. – M., 1972

Entering school is a turning point in a child's life. The leading type of activity is changing. Now it becomes educational activity. The child’s educational activity develops as gradually, through the experience of entering into it, as all previous activities (manipulative, objective, play).

Educational activity is one of the main types of human activity, specifically aimed at mastering the methods of objective and cognitive actions, generalized in the form of theoretical knowledge.

Assimilation (learning) is an essential characteristic of educational activity, and yet these are different phenomena.

Assimilation is a process that takes place in any activity, and educational activity is a type of activity, a special form of social activity of the individual.

Educational activities have a dual function: being a form of activity of the individual, it is a condition and means of his mental development, providing him with the assimilation of theoretical knowledge and thereby the development of his specific abilities, which are crystallized in this knowledge.

At a certain stage of mental development (at primary school age), educational activity plays a leading role in the formation of personality.

As a form of specially regulated cooperation between a child and adults, educational activity is one of the main means of including younger generations in the system of social relations, into open collective activity, during which the values ​​and norms that underlie any collective activity are learned.

The essence of educational activities is to solve educational problems, main difference which is that their goal and result are to change the acting subject himself, which consists in mastering certain methods of action, and not to change the objects with which the subject acts.

Thus, educational activity is an activity aimed at the student himself. The child learns not only knowledge, but also how to master this knowledge.

Educational activity has its own subject - this is.a person. In the case of the educational activities of a primary school student, this is a child.

Reflecting, he compares his former self and his current self. Own change is traced and identified at the achievement level. The most important thing in educational activities is reflection on oneself, tracking new achievements and changes that have occurred.

“I couldn’t” - “I can”, “I couldn’t” - “I can”, “was” - “became”. These are key assessments of the result of in-depth reflection of one’s achievements and changes. It is important that the child becomes for himself both the subject of change and the subject who carries out this change in himself.

5.1. Subject and tasks of child psychology. The connection between child psychology and other sciences. Concept of growth and development. Nature of childhood

Child psychology- a science that studies the characteristics of a child’s mental life and the patterns of mental development in childhood.

Subject Child psychology is the study of the patterns of mental development of a child. Basic task is a description and explanation of the characteristics of a child’s mental development at each age stage.

Child psychology, being an independent fundamental science, has close and mutual connections with other disciplines: on the one hand, it is based on philosophy, cultural studies, developmental psychology, and general psychology; on the other hand, it is the scientific foundation for educational psychology, pedagogy and practical psychology.

Height- is a quantitative change or improvement of a function; the phenomenon of growth, that is, quantitative accumulation.

Development- these are qualitative changes, the emergence of mental neoplasms.

Childhood- the period of the most intensive human development. The nature of childhood. Childhood is a period that lasts from newborn to full social and, therefore, psychological maturity. This is the period of a child becoming a full-fledged member of human society.

Stages of human childhood are a product of history, and they are just as subject to change as they were thousands of years ago. Research by P. P. Blonsky, L. S. Vygotsky, D. B. Elkonin, ethnographic data on the development of children in various societies showed that childhood,

being a sociocultural phenomenon, it is of a specific historical nature and has its own history of development.

Data on how childhood passes among peoples at different stages of social development show that the lower this level, the earlier a growing person is involved in adult types of work. In a primitive culture, children literally from the moment they begin to walk work together with adults. Childhood appeared when the work of adults became inaccessible to the child and began to require a lot of preliminary preparation. It was identified by mankind as the period of preparation for life and adult activity, during which the child had to acquire the necessary knowledge, skills, mental qualities and personality traits. And each age stage is called upon to play its own special role in this preparation. Adults organize the lives of children, build upbringing in accordance with the place allocated to the child by society.

5. 2. Mental development child: prerequisites, factors,

By the age of 7, a child reaches a level of development that determines his readiness for school. Physical development, a stock of ideas and concepts, the level of development of thinking and speech, the desire to go to school - all this creates the prerequisites for systematic learning.

When entering school, the entire structure of a child’s life changes, his routine and relationships with people around him change. Teaching becomes the main activity. Primary school students, with very few exceptions, love to study at school. They like the student’s new position and are attracted to the learning process itself. This defines a conscientious, responsible attitude junior schoolchildren to learning and school. It is no coincidence that at first they perceive a mark as an assessment of their efforts, diligence, and not the quality of the work done. Children believe that if they “try hard”, it means they are doing well. The teacher's approval encourages him to try even harder.

Younger schoolchildren acquire new knowledge, skills and abilities with readiness and interest. They want to learn to read, write correctly and beautifully, and count. True, they are more fascinated by the process of learning itself, and the younger student shows great activity and diligence in this regard. The interest in school and the learning process is also evidenced by the games of younger schoolchildren, in which a large place is given to school and learning.

Younger schoolchildren continue to demonstrate the inherent need for preschool children for active play activities and movements. They are ready to play outdoor games for hours, cannot sit in a frozen position for a long time, and love to run around during recess. The need for external impressions is also typical for younger schoolchildren; A first-grader, like a preschooler, is primarily attracted by the external side of objects or phenomena or activities performed (for example, the attributes of a class orderly - a sanitary bag, a bandage with a red cross, etc.).

From the first days of school, the child has new needs: to acquire new knowledge, to accurately fulfill the teacher’s requirements, to come to school on time and with completed assignments, the need for approval from adults (especially the teacher), the need to fulfill a certain social role (to be a prefect, orderly, commander of the “star”, etc.).

Usually the needs of younger schoolchildren, especially those who were not brought up in kindergarten, are initially personal in nature. A first-grader, for example, often complains to the teacher about his neighbors who allegedly interfere with his listening or writing, which indicates his concern for his personal success in learning. Gradually, as a result of the systematic work of the teacher to instill in students a sense of camaraderie and collectivism, their needs acquire a social orientation. Children want the class to be the best, so that everyone is good students. They begin to help each other on their own initiative. The development and strengthening of collectivism among younger schoolchildren is evidenced by the growing need to win the respect of their comrades and the growing role of public opinion.

Leading activity is a certain direction of activity performed by the child, which determines the most important points the formation of the psyche and the development of its processes and characteristics. In leading activity there is a transformation, restructuring of mental processes, methods of previously performed activities, and personality development.

Leading activity is a category in psychology that does not necessarily occupy the main time in a child’s life, but it determines the process of development of the main required qualities and new formations in each period. A change in the emphasis of activity occurs with age, but is not limited by strict boundaries, because focused on a change in motivation, which changes during the activity performed.

Psychological age in relation to this concept is considered in a combination of criteria of the social situation and the needs of basic new formations; the combination of these points takes into account the leading type of activity. Not only the number of days lived by a person, but also the social situation reveals the child’s typical relationships with people, through which one can trace the features of the individual’s personal relationship with reality. The formation of new processes can be accessible to the child only through activities performed that establish contact between him and the elements of reality. In addition to this external property, leading activity rebuilds and forms new processes that are basic for a certain age of the child.

The emergence of a new leading type does not cancel the implementation of important activities at the previous stage; rather, it is similar to the process of transformation and development of previously performed activities to satisfy the new emerging interest.

This is a leading theory in psychology that has many followers and critics. Thus, it is emphasized that despite the fact that the activity performed mediates developmental processes, it is not clearly fixed and defined for age intervals. More than the temporary course of events, the influence is exerted by the level of development and orientation social groups, where the child is included. Accordingly, the most relevant activity in the current social situation will become the leading one. This theory is valid only within the framework of child psychology and does not extend to further existence. The concept is not advisable to use to illustrate and study the mechanisms and components of holistic and adequate personality development, but only for one side of it - the development of the cognitive component.

Periodization of leading activities in child development

Periodization and delimitation of leading activities occurs on the basis of age periodization and changes in psychological ages. Each such transformation occurs through the passage of a crisis transformation, where a person can get stuck or go through it quickly. The methods of coping also differ; for some, the change in activity occurs softly and organically, while for others it resembles a local apocalypse. There are different types of turning points: relationship crises (three and twelve years), resulting from changes in social position and interaction, and crises of ideological concepts (one, seven and fifteen years), confronting the individual with a change in his semantic space.

Periods characterized by a certain type of leading activity are divided into:

- Infancy (2 months - 1 year): the leading type of activity is carried out unconsciously, obeying primary instincts, manifests itself in emotional communication with the environment.

— Early age (1 - 3 years) is distinguished by the predominance of object-tool (manipulative) activity that takes on a social context, i.e. implies precisely a social way of mastering a subject. There is a lot of experimentation with the qualities of objects.

- Preschool age (3 - 7 years) - the main activity of the development of mental neoplasms comes down to the study and interiorization of social role-based interpersonal interactions. It is carried out through role-playing games to understand the relationships, tasks, motives of various actions depending on the accepted social role and the object used. Here norms and rules, peculiarities of culture and society, and the development of the ability to communicate with peers are learned. The formation of this social layer so early makes it difficult to change these parameters in the future.

- Junior school age (7 - 11 years) - the leading activity is educational activity, and any activity that allows one to acquire new knowledge is considered.

- Adolescence (11 - 15 years) - there is a shift in priorities towards intimate and person-oriented communication, and if at the previous stage communication played a functional role for learning, now learning becomes a platform for communication.

— Youth (graduation from school) is characterized by educational and professional activities, where new tasks and value systems are established, and necessary skills are honed.

The activity of any stage is multifaceted and has a motivational and operational side. One of these components may predominate, since their development is not synchronized, and their tempo characteristics are due precisely to the activity being performed. It is noticed that there is an alternation of activities with a predominance of either a motivational or an operational component. For example, if in infancy the motivational side and the emotional aspect of interaction are maximally involved, then at the next stage operational interaction with the world and its study begins to predominate. Then further change and alternation occurs again. Such alternations are always oriented towards advance, creating with such a gap the conditions for further development. High level motivation leads the child to those conditions where he begins to feel a lack of operational skills, and then the next type of activity is turned on. At the stage of complete mastery of the operational aspects of a certain period, a lack of motivation begins to be felt, which does not allow one to remain at the achieved level and, accordingly, a new phase of development begins, with a predominant motivational component. The conflict between motivation for achievement and the level of opportunities present is an internal element of triggering development.

It is important to understand that such a confrontation between the leading components does not mean the presence of only one of them; rather, their influence is inseparable; the focus of attention simply changes from the operational side to the motivational side and back.

Leading activities at an early age

At an early age, after the motivational component has been saturated with emotional communication, the child’s leading activity is distinguished as object-manipulative. The main task is to learn how to interact with objects of interest, which can happen when repeating the actions of an adult, as well as when inventing new, sometimes original and impractical ways of using them. You may try to collect sand into the bucket not with a spatula, but with a strainer, or comb it with lipstick, etc. Development occurs better if the child masters as many actions as possible that interest him (usually through repeated repetition), and also invents a large number of ways to use the item.

The more simple actions The child will work by repeating after his parents; the more detailed he explores the subject, the better his personal understanding will be formed. The number of subjects should increase after one has been studied completely, i.e. The principle of intensive and deep study of one subject, instead of superficial acquaintance with many things, operates here. Often this comes down to repeating an action a huge number of times, without a final meaning (rolling the machine, wiping all surfaces with a cloth, regardless of dirt, etc.). From the point of view of adults, these repetitions may be meaningless, but they stimulate the child’s thinking and search for new solutions.

Interaction different ways, and not theoretical acquaintance with the subject allows the child to remember it well, form his own idea about it, be able to pronounce its name and many other basic things. If a child is simply shown a new object, called its name and shown how to handle it, then there is no question of remembering the name at all, and the manipulations will be of an educational nature.

Manipulative activity finds its implementation in household chores. By allowing the baby to help in activities such as mopping the floors, watering flowers, cooking dinner, cutting out cookies, etc., parents simultaneously introduce him to all household objects and allow him to learn how to interact with them in an interesting way. In addition, involvement in home activities, as a habitual way of life, will help mitigate the crisis of the third birthday, when the question of one’s place in the world and social importance becomes acute.

The use of special games also helps to develop these functions, but their use should be an auxiliary tool. The development of a child in special, artificial conditions immerses him in a fictional world, and learning to interact with reality does not occur. Such children can be excellent at moving chips, but find themselves absolutely helpless when tying their shoelaces. So, by leaving household chores to the active phase of the child’s day and involving him in the process, parents provide him with more care than by trying to do all the cleaning during the child’s sleep.

An important rule is to accept mistakes and allow your child to make them and learn from them. Let the plate fall while washing the dishes because it is soapy and slippery, let it be the sixth broken plate, but on the seventh he will understand and everything will work out. If parents do not understand the ongoing process, then one may encounter impatience and the child’s withdrawal from the chosen activity. This is how the formation of a skill stops, the need for development is frustrated, motivation decreases and disappears.

Leading activities in primary school age

Entering this age is characterized by a change in lifestyle and the development of a fundamentally new activity - educational. A child’s presence at school lays down new theoretical knowledge and forms social status, develops interaction with people, which determines the child’s own place in this hierarchy of interaction. In addition to dramatic changes in conditions and lifestyle, difficulties for the child lie in physiological changes and weakening of the nervous system. In a growing organism, developmental disharmony occurs when rapid physical growth predominates at this stage and most of the body’s resources are spent on this. Problems of the nervous system can manifest as increased excitability, motor activity, anxiety and fatigue. There is an increase vocabulary, it is possible to invent your own language.

In learning, not only the theoretical knowledge and experience of previous generations is absorbed, but also systems of control, evaluation and discipline. Through educational activities interaction with society occurs, the child’s basic personal qualities, semantic guidelines, and value preferences are formed.

The acquired knowledge now represents theoretical experience accumulated over generations, rather than direct substantive study of the subject. A child cannot change the use of an object, the course of biological reactions, history, physical processes, but when interacting with knowledge about this, he changes himself. No other activity, except educational activity, puts the person himself as the object of change. This is how the development of internal qualities and processes occurs. At this stage, the cognitive task is still determined by the teacher, and attention is directed. At the next stages, the child learns to independently search for meaning and identify needs.

Educational activity manifests itself as self-changes and the ability to notice these changes. Here, objectivity in assessing one’s skills and needs, and the correspondence of existing knowledge to the task at hand, begins to develop. The ability to regulate one’s behavior in relation to social norms, and not just one’s own needs, is formed.

Learning occurs in building interpersonal relationships with representatives of various categories. Thus, interactions and friendships with peers are formed not by personal qualities of interest, but by external circumstances. A school friend becomes the one who sits on the next desk or stands nearby during physical education. In addition to equal communication, a style of interaction with adults is formed, which this moment still also impersonal. The child learns to obey the hierarchy, and the relationship with the teacher is assessed through the prism of academic performance.

Leading activities in adolescence

Educational activity in adolescence changes its focus and becomes more professional, focusing on the future, and not on the futile acquisition of absolutely all knowledge. It is at this age that a change in attitude towards subjects occurs; those that are directly related to the chosen subject begin to be more actively studied. future profession. It is possible to attend additional courses, transfer to those specializing in the chosen activity educational establishments(specialized lyceums, colleges, technical schools).

The appearance of this specification does not yet indicate self-determination, but indicates readiness for it, i.e. a number of areas are selected where a person is ready to try himself or general direction development, which will be specified by further elections (institute, department, scientific work, specialization). But the formation of high levels of theoretical thinking, social worldview, abilities for self-awareness, self-development, and reflection allows one to take the first steps towards self-determination.

Professional self-determination cannot be defined as an instantly made decision. This is a process extended over time, which began several years before adolescence and will end several years after. But if at the previous stages there is an acquaintance with many areas of activity, which allows one to make a choice of industry, and in the future there is a narrow specialization in the chosen direction, then it is the teenage period that is the transitional moment and the time for making a choice.

The older a person gets, the stronger the pressure on him to make a choice, and all unrealistic ideas recede. Thus, the majority of those who want to become astronauts and models evaluate their inclinations, skills and capabilities and make a choice based on real prerequisites, and not on an image taken from a magazine. In addition to external factors that stimulate rapid self-determination, this is facilitated by internal processes of the individual, which boil down to the motivational need to take the position of an adult in society. The need for self-realization comes to the fore and becomes more relevant than ever. All the accumulated experience and the resulting personal development at this stage already takes place in the application of forces and can be aimed at realizing dreams and gaining independence.

Acceptance of responsibility and the willingness to be responsible for one's own life, make choices and contribute to the development of society matures in the adolescent period of development. The further life path of the individual and possible successes depend on how conscious professional self-justification is. In many ways, the issue of professional choice becomes a problem life path and space, realization not only professional, but also personal. Such a burden of responsibility and seriousness of the decision made forces the individual to face another developmental crisis, which affects almost all manifestations and can have a long and pathological course. Failures and negative consequences are especially likely if the tasks of the previous stages have not been fully mastered.

There is a further periodization of ages and mental characteristics, which is also accompanied by personality crises. In this case, time intervals become longer, which is due to the lack of need to understand the world, as well as a slowdown in physiological and psychological processes.